Monthly Archives: May 2010

Research Strategy (part 3)

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Although the unit of assessment has been clearly defined, the individual student does not act in isolation of the surrounding environment. In order to understand and assess the impact of peer learning on the subject, it is necessary to build a abstract representation of the classroom in terms of a dynamic movement of values and meaning. In this context, a researchers perspective operates within the positivist-interpretist paradigm; existence is founded on an objective reality imposed on the individual or existence is a subjective reality defined by individual perception (of which school represents just one of multiple contextual realities).

As education and schools are an intrinic part of society, I have been looking at the models derived from sociology as a means of characterising the African environment. As the dominant framework for analysing society in the 20th century, the functionalist paradigm is rooted in the sociology of regulation (as opposed to radical change paradigm), providing definitions of society in terms of its unity and cohesiveness and approaching its subject matter from an objective viewpoint. Functionalism is characterised by a concern for providing explanations for social order, integration, solidarity and actuality and is itself further delineated by the social-system theory (positivist) and interactionism (interpretist).

Social System theory builds on a biological analogy of holism, relationship between parts, structure, function and needs, treating the external world as a concrete reality, governed by observable functional relations amenable to scientific investigation through nomothetic methods. In this context, Malinowski identified the significance of functionality within social structures (units) whilst Radcliffe-Brown emphasised the significance of the relationship between functional units as the basis for structural continuity i.e the integrity of a society is maintained through the process of social life rather than the movement of individual members (entering or leaving).

Durkhiem suggested that the aim of a coherent society is conservation within the movement from a traditional to an industrial culture. Durkhiem (1938) saw traditional societies as being held together on the basis of a mechanical solidarity derived from the similarity of the associated parts, with the individuals conscience a simple appendage of the collective conscience (based on a system of shared, norms and beliefs) in all its movements. In contrast, Durkeim defined the industrial society with its extensive system of labour division and functional differentiation as a organic form arising from the interdependence of parts. Durkiem recognised that in the process of transition from traditional to industrial, social solidarity could breakdown. However, he saw this as an abnormal state of affairs and a deviation from the natural course of development.

In an extension to social system theory (positivist), von Bertalanffy (1956) promoted the study of systems (over physical events) identifying and exploring the difference between open (organismic analogy) and closed systems. Closed systems are deemed to be isolated from their environment and are characterised by equilibrium. Alternatively, open systems engage in transactions with their environment and change themselves in the process. An open system may achieve steady state but this is not a necessary condition. According to theory an organism represents a good example of an open system since it maintains itself through a (growth) process of exchange with its environment during the course of which there is a continuous build up and break-down of constituent parts.

Whilst it is accepted that an entirely closed (mechanical) system model would be limited in its representative of primary education deliver in the developing world, its is deemed a more suitable model for education in Africa (than the open system) on the basis of the following list of social/educational issues: 1) pan African literature has identified a clear delineation between contemporary schools and their surrounding environment, referred to as the formal and informal education systems. The informal education system is centred on the community and the development of the personal and vocational skills demanded within a traditional setting. In contrast, the state system represents a largely rational (positivist) development of the learning process based on goals of economic growth and national unity with little appreciation or consideration of traditional settings. 2) Progressive systems of education, centred on the child have not been successful in an African context. In contrast, the informal learning structure is based on an objective method of deference, observation, imitation and experience. Tedla even suggests that individual assertion based on personal knowledge, understanding and opinion is percieved as devisive and undisirable within the informal system. 3) At the level of the classroom, order and discipline is maintained by the use/threat of corporal punishment. The symbolic presence of the cane (and the curriculum) suggests that the meaning and values associated with the establishment are (externally) imposed on school children irrespective of individual opinions or the psychological impact.

As the literature indicates a entirely closed social system doesn’t exist, it is therefore appropriate to include an interpretist element as a means of accurately characterising the classroom environment. The subjective aspect to the research will be founded on the difference between the peer group environment and the conventional/formal school and listed as follows: 1) potential differences in Social, Economic status (SES) has been linked to school performance 2) differences in the education level of the parents. 3) many excluded children choose not to attend formal schools due to lack of relevance/interest i.e. a idiosyncratic view of education. 4) children will be taught by trained student-tutors rather than formal teachers. 5) There will be no threat of corporal punishment. 6) the limited curriculum and teaching time customised to the needs of the students.

Mid-way between the idealist view of society as a subjectively constructed entity (interactionist) and the objective mechanistic view, Mead states that the human being evolves through a social process of interaction that involves the development of language and hence the constructs of mind and self. Whilst Meads views are predicated upon the existence of an external reality which influences human thought and action, he rejects the notion of simple behaviourism recognising the role played by human beings in influencing their environment. It would appear that Meads objective relativism represents the pragmatists view of social construction.

In a practical sense, it is suggested that research invite each student and student-teacher to provide an individual opinion/account of needs and satisfaction in relation to the learning process. Though this is subjective element, the data could still be obtained using a survey method based on questionaires and interviews.

Research Strategy (part 2)

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The deeper I delve into research methodology, the more intellectually entangled I become; hence the need to accurately define the boundaries of interest. As of now, I believe that my function as a researcher is to characterise the peer learning classroom as a means of delivering an objective and meaningful assessment of the learning environment. Based on this notion, the unit of analysis is deemed to be the individual, adolescent student and how he/she perform within a peer learning classroom environment.

1) On the understanding that the classroom/school is not a value free environment, what is the nature and form of these values. In this context, do the students (individually and collectively) define social reality within the classroom or do the prevalent norms and values of the classroom define individual values. Researcher perceptions in relation to this point determine the preferred operating paradigm. The symbolic presence of corporal punishment (in the form of the cane) suggests that society is determined to impose its will on the students, whether they like it or not i.e. individual assertion is neither welcomed nor tolerated. This perspective complements notions of African thought and learning based on deference and imitation and are seemingly inline with a positivist approach to education.

2) What are the significant values and expectations of education as defined by government policy. Are the aims of the government consistent with those of the students. Contemporary education in Africa has been accused on neo-colonialism of the mind, supporting an elite agenda (political, social and economic) as opposed to that of the majority and particularly the marginalised rural poor.

3) Will a peer learning environment be intrinsical different from the conventional classroom. If so, how and to what aim(s) i.e. political, social, economic (PSE). Currently it would seem that the peer environment has exactly the same PSE agenda as the conventional school (private or public), just a different delivery mechanism.

Further to the last point the following questions arise:

a) How will this meaning structure be affected by direct peer group tutoring as opposed to conventional teaching.

b) Excluded adolescent students (from a particular segment of the marginalised community) will probably arrive with a definitive view and attitude towards school, education and society at large. Many excluded children dont attend school for reasons associated with poverty and a perceived lack of institutional irrelevance.

c) Despite their age, the students will be learning from a primary curriculum. How will this effect their self concept.

Research Strategy (part 1)

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In advance of finalising my research proposal based on an agreed set of high level requirements, I have turned my attention to the research strategy and the methods I could potentially employ to characterise and assess the learning environment. The process is initiated in terms of philosophical questions that relate to the understanding of the world, knowledge and the intended research environment i.e ontology, epistomology and axiology. Whilst history has witnessed a evolutionary cycle of deductive and inductive preferences, research is ultimately founded on a personal perception of truth and reality i.e that my subjective set of values will inevitably effect the form of the research and the output.

In terms of diametrically opposing paradigms, the world can be interpreted from the following extreme perspectives: 1) a positivist; the knower and the known are independent, inquiry is value free and based on a single reality. Time and context free generalisations are possible 2) a constructivist/interpretivist; the knower and the known are inseparable, inquiry is value bound and there are multiple, constructed realities. Only time and context bound conclusions are possible.

On the basis that the derivation of truth is deductive in nature, my ontological stance would appear to be positivist i.e I am starting with the hypothesis that student-tutors are able to teach student-learners, a priori to building a supporting case based on definitive evidence. Inductive research on the other hand is based on the detailed exploration of a phenomena and possible relationships between variables, a-priori to advancing a hypothesis or theory.

Whilst scholars defend one world view as opposed to another, in the real world a continua of philosophical orientations rather than dicotomous distinctions seem to reflect more accurately the positions of most investigators (Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2009). Definitive paradigms that exist on this notional continuum include: 1) Pragmatism; the search for practical answers that interest the investigator. There may be causal relationships but they are transitory and hard to identify. 2) Transformative; places central importance on the lives and experiences of marginalised groups. Causal relationships should be understood within the social justice framework. Generisation is based on representative statements with links to social justice 3) Post-Positivist; There is a real reality but it can only be understood imperfectly or probabilistically.

Along this paradigm continuum there will inevitably exist a range of approaches related to research methods, categorised as follows: 1) definitively QUAN approach 2)Approachs that emphasise QUAN and use QUAL as a source of supplemental data. 3) Mixed Methods, QUAN and QUAL approaches are used in equal measure. 4) Approaches that emphasise QUAL and use QUAN as a source of supplemental data. 5) definitively QUAL approach.

The Prof has suggested a strictly positivistic approach (what?) to research based on student outcomes (quantitative testing) which could be supplemented by a on-task behavioural analysis (categorising student actions on a periodic basis). Whilst this view of school value would be the easiest to assess, it effectively acknowledges the diploma disease that seems to have infected the African perception of education i.e its only purpose is the attainment of qualifications. This view may reflect the truth but it ignores the fact that school is an intensely value-laden environment with significant explicit and implicit influence over its subjects. A strictly positivist approach would therefore be limited in its ability to characterise the environment and the learning process i.e why (based on subjective student and parental perspectives) a particular outcome was recorded as opposed to simply what was recorded. It is suggested that this qualitative aspect of research has particular significance when considered in relation to the chosen topic as so little is known about the needs, attitudes and perceptions of excluded children despite the fact that a vast UN effort (EFA programme) is being undertaken on their behalf.

From a practical standpoint, the quantitative approach is also dependent on whether a number of variables can be effectively controlled (in the absence of a definitive control group) i.e learning time, age and background differences etc.

This definition of research project would suggest a pragmatic paradigm based on some form of mixed method approach within the overall context of a case study, an indepth analysis of a single case. More research will be required in order to assess the validity of MM and the precise relationship between the QUAN and QUAL components.

Short History of Ghanaian Education (pre-independence)

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As a means of providing a contextual backdrop to the research, I have been rereading Grahams History of Education in Ghana.

It is important to note that the term itself refers to the development of education in the formal, institutional sense, as opposed to the informal, traditional form at the heart of African culture and identity. In general terms, informal education represents an holistic approach that inculcates the child with the knowledge, skills and attitutes that enable them to handle themselves and their environment successfully. In contrast, formal education has tended to prioritise knowledge at the expense of other aspects of our personality on the basis that increased knowledge will lead to positive changes in attitude and behaviour. As the definitions illustrate, this paradox is far more than mere semantics and remains to this day, the fundamental issue that divides perception in relation to Africa curriculum development.

Formal education was introduced with the arrival of the colonial powers in the 16th century. The first recorded school was built by the Portuguese in the area referred to as the Gold Coast in 1529. From this time onward, the region grew in significance as it became a centre of commerce between the indigenous traders and the European seafaring powers of the era (Britian, Spain, Portugal, Holland). In addition to trade in basic commodities, it should also be noted that the Gold Coast became notorious as a major operating hub for the slave trade, from where vast numbers of Africans were shipped to plantations in the New World. Nunn has argued that the devastating loss of human capital, in addition to the violence, division and exploitation wraught by the industry established the basis for the continental poverty that persists to this day.

As the region grew in commercial significance, the British (as the emerging colonial power) recognised the urgent need for literate interpreters, prompting the first generation of formal schools for mulatto children (Expats with African wives) in the Cape Coast region, privately funded by the African Company and various acts of philanthropy. Whilst religion and moral education was introduced into the curriculum at Elmina school in 1752 (by the Rev T.Thompson), it remained of secondary importance to the commercial needs until the end of the 19th century.

Although beyond direct government control at this time, the shape of education development in the colonies was inevitably influenced by ideas emanating from Britain as it progressed along the path of industrialisation. This included the introduction of the monitorial system (Bell and Lancaster) which was seen as an effective means of delivering basic, cheap education to the masses. The associated curriculum was based on English literacy, basic arithmetic and moral/religious education. Most significantly, the role of teachers was undertaken by a cohort of select students using a simple rote method. History suggests that despite a period of popularity in Britian, the monitorial system was not deployed to any appreciable extent within the Gold Coast region. It eventually fell out of favour completely as a result of criticism associated with the its simplistic standardisation of the learning process, the prescriptive system of rewards and punishments, rote teaching methods and the conspicuous application of market forces within the classroom which was interpreted as a divisive instrument, representative of the deep social and economic divisions of the period (Foucault).

Meanwhile in view of its growing significance, overall responsibility for the school system in the Gold Coast was transferred from the African Company to the state (1835). Furthermore, the acceptance of English Law by the majority of the Fanti chiefs cleared the path for the entry of the missionary schools. At this time, three parellel bodies rose to pre-eminence; the Government schools, the Wesleyan schools and the Basel school (of German origin). The Privy Council report of 1847 influenced by Wesleyan Rev. Freeman led to a fundamental reorganisation of education based on the principles of christian values and manual labour, worthwhile occupations for school leavers and government grants for schools. Despite these efforts to popularise education by the mid 19th century, it was generally perceived as a status symbol in the rise of a new society of which the tribal chiefs and their sons were the principal beneficiaries. It would appear that the broader population were decidely ambivalent, seeing little contextual value in a formal education beyond a certain level.

Despite periodic conflict with the Ashanti tribes of the north, the level of British political ambition in the region increased with the demise of slavery (and the expansion of credit facilities to a wage-earning indigenous population). Consequently, the second half of the 19th century witnessed significant growth of the local economy in harness with a rapid, government supported expansion of the Missionary schools. This expansion became official government policy in 1852 which included the imposition of a Poll Tax to support improved public services. Meanwhile back in Britain, Forsters Elementary Education Act of 1870 and the creation of School Boards (free schooling) triggered a change in the nature of delivery with the introduction of free education. A similar law/ordinance was passed on the Gold Coast in 1882, granting government aid to schools in accordance standards witnessed by government inspectors. The curriculum was also expanded to include drawing industrial instruction and Physical exercise.

By the turn of the century the total number of school children was in excess of 4000, while the distribution of schools on the Gold Coast was as follows: Government (7), Basel mission (61), Wesleyan (49), Bremen (3), Catholic (12). There is no figure for the number of missionary schools not in receipt of a subside. By 1925 this profile had growm to 30,000 children within 236 Government and assisted schools and a curriculum that also included local languages (Twi and Fanti). Reforms followed in 1942 as a means of improving the quality of education and 1951 to develop a balanced system working toward universal education (as finance would allow).

In conclusion, education in Ghana has been heavily influenced by western perceptions and ideas (particular those from Britain) that persist to this day. Whilst Africans continue to relate education to prestige and (relatively) high rewards, the system is skewed towards the elite who are most able to benefit from the limited number of white collar job opportunities available. Whilst educational progress by the less privileged sectors of indigenous society (poor, rural communities) has been continually undermined by politics and finance, it would seem that they have consistently rejected vocational programmes (numerous failed agricultural and industrial training experiments) in favour of academic training despite the absence of related employment opportunities. As suggested by Bray, this apparent rejection of blue collar work has resulted in a transition from rural underemployment to open unemployment in urban areas.

IMPACT Model

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As yet, I have not received a response from either SEAMOE (IMPACT customers) or IDRC (IMPACT Donors) with regarded to detailed information or analysis of the programme. However, I have found a document dating back to March 1980 that provides the first clear definition of the curriculum and the form of the delivery system. The project principles are listed as follows:

1. The project subjects are in need of a primary education. The students themselves can be in-school, out-of-school or adults.
2. The essence of education is the learning process (I am unsure of the true significance of this statement)
3. Learning can take place anywhere.
4. Multiple Entry and Exit points. Solve the drop-out problem
5. Progress in based on mastery and individual speed
6. Education is a socialising process with training in leadership
7. Education is the responsibility of parents, the community and the government. (That final part is obviously open to debate)
8. The teacher is the manager/facilitator of the learning process

The document then follows a distinctly positivist approach to cirruculum design (Blooms taxomony) following a logical path from national development goals (based on the curious notion of a new Filipino) through teaching strategies and terminating with the definition of classroom actions and anticipated Student outcomes and behaviours. Whilst the superstructure of the programme is very clear, this approach raises a potentially awkward ontological question of the rational approach to education and Africans traditional/spiritual view of life i.e there is more to learning than tangible, measured outcomes. On the other hand, the simplicity of classroom procedures is paramount for reasons that shall soon become clear.

The curriculum appears to be focused on literacy, numeracy and practical skills. The school population is seperated into basic (1-3)and advanced (4-6) streams and framed within an instruction based delivery system (form of learning) with the following operating modes:

1. Programmed Teaching: The more experienced students teach the less experienced students based on a predefined set of scripts (levels 6, 5, 4 teach levels 1,2,3 respectively). The groups have 4-8 students for each student teacher (with a combination of mixed ability groups forming discrete family). There is 30 mins of teaching followed by 30mins of direct tutoring for the slower students in the group and a limit of one task per class. A number of teaching strategies have been identified, each with their own set of predefined scripts as the basis for the teaching process. The strategies follow a same basic form:

Step 1: The teacher presents a task to be performed (skill or small body of information) and asks the student to perform the task .i.e you are to sound a letter. What is this sound of this letter.
Step 2: The teacher demonstrates the correct response or teaches part of the task the pupil didnt perform correctly.
Step 3: Repeat step 1
Step 4: The teacher asks the group to perform the task which the student performed correctly or the teacher demonstrated.

At first glance is seems to me that steps 1 and 2 should exchange places. Surely the student-teacher is required to provide a correct demonstration of the task before expecting an appropriate response. Whatever the correct version, the process is rote-based (therefore culturally familiar) and simple to model as a basis for training adolescent teachers.

2. Peer Group Learning (Advanced Stream): Elder pupils who are on the second half of the continuum (levels 4-6) use the peer group learning mode. Each group is composed of 6 members (max) who are heterogeneous in ability but who are studying on the same core modules. Each member of the group takes turns in acting as group leader and in answering questions. Contracting is an integral part of Peer Group Learning. Simply, a group promises, in writing, to complete a number of modules for the week. Due recognition is made of the performance of each group with respect to its contract. The majority of learning time for Levels 4-6 is given to peer-group learning. The main reason for this is to enable the children to help each other. This model would appear to have some similarity with the constructivist environment defined by Piaget and described in some detail in my original proposal.

3. Individualised Study (Advanced Stream): One period each day is given over to “individual pursuits”. This is the hour during which the more able students study enriched advanced modules (alone or in small groups). This is also the hour during which the less able members of peer groups review and study the core module which the whole group had been studying during the previous three period. This review period is often undertaken with a more knowledgable peer in a similar form to the peer tutoring model defined by Vygotsky which also formed part of my original proposal.

Based on the IMPACT format, it is suggested that a single Instruction Supervisor (adult teacher) can facilitate/oversee the learning of 200 students simultaneously. The overriding question remains, is it possible to extract a portion of IMPACT for research purposes based on a set of Kasoan priorities, without losing the intrinsic meaning and purpose of the programme. I might not be able to answer this question until after the research is complete but I wont be able to get started until I have a definitive set of project requirements based on Ghanaian development needs, curriculum aims and objectives, intended learning experience etc.

Finally, there is the question of sustainability. A report dating back to the late 1970s suggested that whilst the learning procedure produced positive student outcomes (in relation to control groups), the project expanded very rapidly (in the shape of Community Learning Centres) with varying degrees of success. However a contemporary, Enhanced programme (e-IMPACT) has since been commissioned, suggesting that the SEAMOE have confidence in IMPACTs ability to improve the current status of mass primary education in South East Asia. We await a response to my emails before making an assessment of the policy implications; is it possible that a government body has implemented a functioning, accessible, sustainable low cost system of education for the poor? If so, why isnt IMPACT a cornerstone of the UN plans to achieve universal primary education.

Curriculum and Reality in African Schools

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Although my job is not to develop an entire curriculum for an African school, my research proposal has to be based on some form of objective analysis. To this end Hugh Hawes (1979) has provided a well documented assessment of curriculum development in Africa and the reality of teaching within the classroom. Within an historical context, Hawes describes the involvement of foriegn donors, particularly Americans in the development of a post independence curriculum during the 1960’s. The learning priorities were literacy, numeracy, science and social studies each spawning individual programmes to be rolled out in many African nations. The notable exclusion was Tanzania who were developing an Education for Reform programme based on the socialist principles of Julius Nyerere.

Whilst the programme represented an awkward balance of rote and progressive teaching approaches the main criticism was related to the following aspects of implementation. 1) absence of a clear link between curriculum aims and classroom practice. 2) currupt government practices particularly in relation to textbook publication. 3)implementation to broad and too rapid 4) programme was too ambitious with unrealistic timescales leading to fragmented success.

Hawes described the reality in the classroom as follows: 1) not enough time to achieve curriculum objectives. 2) Lessons are multi-linginual in order to save time. 3) The teacher is focused on the priorities (Maths and English) 4) classes are exam focused.

In order to bridge the gap between the formal curriculum and reality, Hawes suggests the following guidelines: 1)given the teacher a set of manageable and achievable objectives and goals 2) be flexible in order that the teacher is permitted to follow themes that engage the students 3)Include Agricultural themes in the curriculum.

In addition to specifying the mechanism for improving the process of curriculum development in the formal sector, Hawes provides a definition of basic education (a concept that I have seen referenced in numerous books) within the African context.

Basic Education is in essence, an attempt to find a compromise between formal (school) and informal (traditional) education. According to Hawes, the principal factors associated with Basic Education are listed as follows: 1) basic skills, knowledge and attitudes (life long learning) that enable learners to take charge of their lives. 2) Different paths to learning; different formats, contents, materials can be used. 3) Focused on attainment of goals (not time spent or ground covered) 4) Very basic; focused on minimal life skills. 4) not considered terminal and therefore not focussed on progression up the educational ladder. 5) Must be developed in the context of an educational partnership that includes the individual, the family, formal education and the surrounding community (should include adult education, art and agriculture). 5) Hawes recommends that context specific themes should be woven into/across the entire curriculum.

In this context, Hawes provides a concise description of a number of Basic Education programmes, sponsored by the UN that went into operation across Africa. This tag appears to represent the next line of enquiry.

The literature review appears to suggest the following pointers in relation to my own project:
1) Literacy and numeracy are legitimate priorities
2) Some form of skills based learning should be included in the curriculum i.e Agriculture, IT, Health care, development studies (Van Rensburg) depending on the contextual need.
3) Teaching methods should be grounded in indigenous tradition of observation and imitation
4) Lessons and materials should be related to context

Furthermore, should the research be successful, any form of expansion in terms of the schooling and the curriculum should involve community stakeholders as an integral part of the development process and consider adult education in order to fully integrate the format into the community.

Newsflash!
It seems were not alone afterall. While reviewing the tome, Principles and Practice in Education (Farrant, 1982), I came across a reference to a programme called IMPACT (Instructional Management by Parents, Communities and Teachers). The programme (implemented in Indonesea and the Phillipines) has been specifically designed to function in poor countries where resources are in short supply. Significantly, the classes (small groups of 5 students) are led by student-tutors as opposed to formal teachers and it would appear that the aims of the programme are very similar to those related to Basic Education described above. The programme was specified by SEAMEO (South East Asian Ministers of Education Organisation) as an effective alternative delivery system for mass primary education and funded by the International Development Research Centre of Canada. I have emailed SEAMEO in the hope that they will provide me with some relevant documentation in order that I may compare the aims, scope, curriculum etc with the cheap basic education requirement for Ghana.

Despite the length of time it has taken to reveal itself, Im not surprised that a detailed and structured contemporary programme of peer group learning currently exists and should it be readily transferrable to Ghana that would represent some very good news for Ken and the children. Where exactly that would leave my proposal however, remains to be seen.

Botswana Brigades

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Soon after being posted to the Swaneng Hill School, Serowe in 1962, Peter Van Rensburg identified the following social problems: 1) school leavers unable to find paid employment. 2) lack of resources and facilities. 3) inappropriate attitude to education; simply a ladder on which ambition climbs to privilege. Van Rensburg believed that the solution lay in a system of education founded on core subjects like English and Mathematics combined with instruction in skills which could be used in production. The goods could then be sold to pay for instructors and materials for further production. The school was therefore structured in terms of discrete, self-funded brigades of builders, carpenters, mechanics etc. Van Rensburg placed a strong emphasis on skills as opposed to certificates.

Whilst providing a tangible basis for sustainable employment however, it would appear that the business grew far too quickly and ran into liquidity problems (production was often dependent on expensive machinery) coincident with broader social-economic problems at the national level. In addition to the financial issues, Bray refers to deeper problems related to social stratification and structural unemployment. It is apparent that skill training could never compensate for lack of public and private investment in rural development. Furthermore, it seems that Van Rensburg had misread the notion of educational relevance. Whilst he was correct to recognise the disconnect between an educational instiution and its local environment, Van Rensburg now suggests that what trainees actually require is greater awareness of Botswana from a national and international perspective in order to make better personal decisions i.e. a development studies course. A subsequent report (the Brigade system collapsed in 1980) indicates that brigades had positive ideals and a strong impact on rural communities.

It would appear that the approach of Van Rensburg was structural sound and could form the basis of an equivalent school in Ghana. It is also a graphic illustration of how the changing social and economic context define the educational environment rather than vice versa; the school curriculum is a dynamic medium, necessarily untidy and unfinished (Hawes, 1979)

Education and Society in Africa

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Having agreed a cut down set of objectives based on a variant of the monitorial format, there remains the need to define or at least justify a curriculum that is meaningful and attractive to the prospective students. To this end, I returned to the library to hunt for more relevant material and spent another weekend indoors reading Education and Society in Africa by Mark Bray et al (1986).

The historical context is highly significant when attempting to understand the development and current form of education on the continent. Whilst allowing for the influence of islamic education in the northern regions of Africa, institutionalised, formal education was first bought to the continent by Christian missionaries in the mid 19th century. Though overtly spreading the word of the bible, the church had an hidden agenda of civilising Africa through the promotion of western values. As trade links expanded, foreign powers became more involved in the local politics of their colony in order to protect their growing range of interests.

In Ghana, this process included government investment in education (schools, teachers, materials etc) and the development a production line of trained administrators for an expanding bureaucracy. Places in British public schools were even offered to the sons of local tribal chiefs as a means of maintaining a positive regional influence in perpetuity.
History suggests (Phelps Stokes report, 1925) that despite the asymmetric nature of the relationship with its colonies, the British did retain a level of sensitivity for local needs. Unlike the French, this included the acceptance of a local vernacular within the classroom. It seems sadly ironic therefore that Africans felt patronised by such an approach and demanded a European style of education; promoting an individualised methodology (based on the colonial language) as opposed to an indigenous form of education. More likely it seems, these Africans represented the local elite and future inheritors of Africa. A European education therefore provided a convenient mechanism for further stratifying and reinforcing their dominant position within society.

In Ghana, there are 43 different regional languages with English designated as the national language and the platform for nation building. However, as politics and the related media coverage is almost entirely in English it places the illiterate and/or uneducated majority (particularly in the isolated rural areas) at a distinct disadvantage, leaving the existing (post independence) power structures largely intact and beyond authentic criticism. Within the classroom, English is the L2 for the majority of students but the L1 for all learning material. Comtemporary research suggests the opposite would be much more appropriate and in fact, aid the process of L2 learning and cognition (Bray, 1986; Owe-Ewie, 2006).

Although the political landscape may have changed since the days of the missionary, the nature of education and curriculum development in most of Africa remains unchanged; dominated by Western opinion and educational notions within the recognised paradigms of formal and informal education incorporating traditional or progressive teaching methods. The current trend appears to be a compromise solution referred to as basic education, representing an integration of formal and informal learning practices. Bray however suggests that society and economics are the principal forces that define education rather than the reverse. In this context, the difficulty of defining a curriculum for Ghana is related the organic nature of modern society resulting from the influences of global trade and economics. Whilst the significance of the skills associated with a mechanical (traditional) society are recognised for their cultural significance, knowledge (as opposed to experience) and certificates are now percieved by the indigenous population as the indicators of academic success and the key to employment.

In contrast, Africa is a characterised by an agrarian and informal (traders, small scale entrepreneurs) culture (75% of labour) related to a labour intensive employment environment as opposed to salaried employment. Attempts to ruralise and vocationalise the curriculum have failed because; 1) Wage disparities. Financial rewards associated with a government job are far in excess of the informal sector. 2) International trade. Farmers in the developing world are completed with heavily subsidised from the developed world leading to artificial suppression of market prices. 3) The local pricing mechanism discriminates against farmers in order to keep market prices low. 4)capital intensive environments are percieved as more modern. Investment in machinery reduces the need for the hired hand. 5) Employers are fearful of labour disputes.

Bray suggests that in the absence of government committment to rural development, under-employment in the rural areas (related to farming subsides in the developed world) has simply morphed into open unemployment in the urban areas.

In view of this outcome, Bray asks why invest in education at all? For the family the reasons are listed as follows: 1) For the family it represents a low private cost. State systems are subsidised and provided there is no opportunity cost, education is worth consideration. 2) For those with an education that do secure employment the returns can be relatively high. 3) Education is desirable in itself. For the Government: 1) Education is believed to be a good investment, though in reality public schools are low quality and expensive. 2) Its easier to provide education than restructure the economy. 3) Its politically popular.

The harsh reality seems to be that despite attempts to broaden access to education and ruralising/vocationalising the rural curriculum, the system is deemed to promote further stratification and inequality in society and is failing to meeting the aspirations and expectations of the population. Unemployment in Africa is high and growing, with opportunities for only 25% of the 15 year old group and higher unemployment for the 15-24 yr age group. Bray even goes so far as to suggest that without an economic revolution, the existing system of education will consolidate not weaken social stratification.

Research suggests that many attempts have been made across the continent to increase the relevance of education particularly in the rural context (whilst avoiding the stigma associated with an informal education) in order to create meaningful employment opportunities. Whilst it would appear that no single programme has achieved these (seemingly contradictory) goals in their entirely, some projects have certainly been more successful than others. Bray highlights the Foundation for Education with Production created by Peter Van Rensburg in Botswana as a potential template for education and development.

Ghana Education Context

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As the literature review progresses, I thought it would be a good idea to use the blog as a record of the interesting little nuggets of information encountered in relation to Ghana and its education system. In order to understand the philosophy that underpins policy and the curriculum, I attempted to access the Ghanaian Ministry of Education (MoE) website but it is currently unavailable. I did however come across a reference to a broad body of work (referred to as MUSTER) undertaken by the University of Sussex and Dr Keith Lewin, a key proponent of free, universal education.

Whilst most of the work on the internet appears to be inaccessible, I did manage to download a paper investigating teacher training in Ghana which was heavily critical of the progress being made, particularly in relation to the shifting sands that represent policy and the total disconnect with the reality of classroom practice.

On a different tac, a paper written by Goodwyll (2007) was found in Education of Diverse Student Populations (ed Goufang, 2007). It would appear that the flaws in the system since independence have long been recognised, given the number of significant acts of reform since independence (seven). The perennial desire to move away from a colonial paradigm that largely reflects the needs of the elite is apparent however, the meaningful and functional policy shift remains elusive. Although much effort and resource has been allocated to teacher training and free universal education (FCUBE programme), the benefits are accumulated by the urban minority; pre-schooled and fluent in English.

Furthermore, the paper reflects the difficulty of enticing talented individuals into teaching. The vocation is no longer greatly valued in Ghanaian society as a consequence of poor pay/conditions and limited promotional opportunities. Teaching appears to be the last resort of those graduates who in the absence of better exam results, have few credible employment options. This issue appears to date back to pre-independence (1953) when in the absence of teacher resource, the government established an Emergency Training Centre for student-teachers based on a 6 month course. In view of my project objectives it is unfortunate that I cant locate any further information regarding this little gem, apart from the fact that the idea was abandoned after 9 years.

Goodwyll also notes the absence of clarity at the level of education policy however, this is apparently not the stumbling block on which the system falls. It would appear that despite the fact that the requisite communication medium in the classroom, including the supporting (poor quality)text books is English, neither the teachers nor the students have an adequate level of language proficiency (Kraft, 2007). According to exam results (yr 2000) only 8.7% of students reached the level of merit (60%+) in national language exams. This would appear to validate the focus on literary skills in my curriculum design though it does presume that English has contextual significance in the social lives of excluded children.

Finally, the literature suggests that the significance of ICT within the realms of contemporary education are now recognised, though the primary curriculum as a whole is far too congested (9 subjects) for the limited teaching time available(one of lowest in Africa). ICT is now seen as a significant element in the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) and a tanglible means of reaching the poor (Mangesi, 2007). However, ICT deployment in schools remains sporadic in relation to location (urban over rural) and management type (public over private.

Whilst limited, the MoE policy directives/objectives located thus far for the relevant age groups, as listed as follows:

Primary School (6 years in duration until the age of 12)

Primary Education being the foundation of the education system has the following objectives:

i) numeracy and literacy i.e. the ability to count, use numbers, read, write and communicate effectively;
ii) laying the foundation for inquiry and creativity;
iii) development of sound moral attitudes and a healthy appreciation of Ghana’s cultural heritage and identity;
iv) development of the ability to adapt constructively to a changing environment;
v) laying the foundation for the development of manipulative and life skills that will prepare the individual pupils to function effectively to their own advantage as well as that of their community;
vi) inculcating good citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in national development.

The objectives outlined above have been incorporated into a revised national curriculum comprising the following subjects for all Primary Schools:

Mathematics
Science
Social Studies
Cultural Studies
Ghanaian Languages
English
Agriculture
Life Skills
Physical Education

Junior Secondary School (3 yrs in duration until the age of 15)

Under the new education reform programme which began in 1987 the Junior Secondary School is to give pupils a broad-based education including pre-disposition to technical and vocation subjects and basic life skills which will enable the pupils to:

i) discover their aptitudes and potentialities so as to induce in them the desire for self-improvement.
ii) Appreciate the use of the hand as well as the mind and make them creative and self-employable.

All Junior Secondary Schools are day schools with mixed sexes.
The following comprise the curriculum of the Junior Secondary School:
1. Mathematics
2. Integrated Science
3. Social Studies
4. Cultural Studies
5. Ghanaian Languages
6. English Language
7. French (optional)
8. Agriculture
9. Life Skills
10. Physical Education
11. Technical Drawing
12. Basic Technical Skills
13. Vocational Skills

Every pupil is expected to study all the subjects except French, which is optional and may be studied only if there is a qualified teacher on the staff. 12 Vocational subjects have been approved for study in Junior Secondary Schools throughout the country. Each school is required to select for study 2 of those subjects for which materials are available locally.

Latest Action Plan

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Having had a clarification meeting with Pauline and James, the original plan has indeed been revised and scaled down. Rather than paraphrase the latest plan of action, Ive simply cut and pasted it below:

Project Aims
The principal aim of the research proposal is to assess the potential for a Peer Assisted Learning environment focused on the adolescents currently excluded from education in the developing world; more specifically, the semi-rural town of Kasoa in Ghana.

The chosen theme reflects an uncompromising environment where cost, an absence of resources and a lack of material relevance often result in a low quality product and significant numbers of children being excluded from the formal learning domain; 21% of all Ghanaian children between the ages of 7-16 have never been to school (EFA, 2009).

The limitations of a traditional (EFA) approach to education delivery for the poor, based on a curriculum that ignores cultural context and relevant learning experiences have been acknowledged (Leadbetter and Wong, 2009; Tedla, 1995; Salia-Bao, 1989). However in view of the complexity of the research environment, it is considered neither feasible nor advisable (high risk) to introduce a radical step change into the Ghanaian classroom; such a strategy would in all probability, produce an unstable environment that is difficult to characterise, assess and sustain.

It is therefore proposed (subject to review) that the research be based on the limited classroom configuration that leaves the current teaching/learning format and objectives largely intact with the significant exception of the teaching role, which will be undertaken by a student-tutor as opposed to a formally qualified, adult teacher.

The aim of the research therefore will be to assess the validity of a monitorial style approach to learning in the given context. The output will then form the basis for further investigations assessing the potential for expansion of the procedure to include additional aspects of the curriculum and changes to the style of teaching and learning.

Research Requirements
The dominant features of the proposed monitorial classroom are listed as follows:

1. The curriculum will be focused on the contextually significant subjects of English (basic literacy skills) and Maths (basic arithmetic skills).
2. These core subjects will be supplemented by a basic Computer Literacy element as a means of adding interest, diversity and contemporary relevance to the learning environment.
3. In view of its cultural relevance (observation and imitation), procedural simplicity and suitability in relation to low-level thinking sactivities, the dominant teaching style will be traditional rote
4. The target population will be limited to a random selection of adolescents (between 11-16 years) who are currently excluded from school.
5.The population will be limited to a single, broadly similar cognitive level in order to avoid multiple curriculum definitions
6. Class sizes will be dependent on population size (subject to research) and the number of student-tutors (TBD)
7. The appropriate school building will be provided consisting of a number of small classrooms to match the student need
8. The school will be open in line with traditional hours (07.30 to 15.30)NB. classes will be of a short duration and repeated throughout the day in order that students can accommodate learning into their personal lives. This schedule has the added benefit of supporting student-tutor confidence and development.
9. Developing a teaching environment that doesn’t necessitate the threat or use of corporal punishment i.e. a visible adult presence is required
10. Assessment will be undertaken in relation to the cognitive and behavioural development of the students
11. The learning environment will be defined in relation to a select group of commercially available learning packages focused on English literacy (phonics) and basic arithmetic
12. Student-tutor training will be complete by the end of September 2010. School availability must be coincident with this timeframe i.e. the beginning of October 2010.
13. The course will have a duration of six months minimum.
14. The school is a private entity and must be operational sustainable. To this end, the students will be required to pay a small fee in order to cover the cost of the student-tutors (paid to cover their opportunity cost)
15. The school will be closely associated with the Omega Foundation brand in order to promote its acceptability amongst parents and children.

Action Plan
The actions required to meet the requirement as listed as follows:

1. Review the set of research requirements listed above
2. Development of a business plan including: a) costs associated with (but not limited to) acquiring an operating licence, the building (materials and construction), learning materials (learning packages, computers, stationery, furniture), student-tutor payments, meals etc. b) revenue generated by student fees.
3. Marketing plan that includes the following: a) cost of advertising the school. b) An estimate of student numbers based on proposed curriculum options and their supposed relevance to the target population.
4. Search within Ghanaian education policy and curriculum documents for definitive statements regarding culturally relevant themes and learning experiences. Whilst procedural simplicity is of paramount importance, these statements (assuming they exist) will form the basis for selection criteria associated with the learning packages.
5. Deriving a definitive research methodology and assessment tool set. In view of the originality of the project, it may be difficult to derive a control group model against which cognitive and behavioural progress can be measured. On the understand that all students can are tested but only a select group are exposed to the intervention, the use of a regression-divergence technique may be appropriate.

So thats the latest plan. Whilst we await progress on that, I will continue to make address the literature review and attempt to resolve the continued enigma that is the research methodology.