Category Archives: PhD context

Spring Clean

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Its the new year and time for a thorough spring clean. On the surface it seemed like an onorous task however after 4 years of study, I have a much clearer idea of what is important and what is not. On that basis alone I am able to dispose of a host of journal articles that now bear little or no relevance to my studies and furthermore, reassess the material that continues to have a degree of validity. The real difficulties now reside in breadth and depth of my analysis. The data represent something in the region of 10 hrs (out of a total of 24hrs) of transcribed and translated interaction. Each of the extracts (a total in excess of 70) is related to multiple semotic fields and are therefore dense and complicated. The task then is to devise an appropraite strategy for analysis and discriminating between social actions (at the level of micro-ethnography) and the detailed mechanisms of interaction (at the level of pure Conversation Analysis). In these terms, the data is to be understood in terms of coherent social actions and procedures. Once a series of patterns have been identified there is then the possibility to assess a select number of episodes in the fine detail associated with CA. A long and tortuous process.

Amongst the journal articles that I considered appropriate to read was a significant one written by my supervisor Alan Firth and his partner, Johannes Wagner. Irrespective of specifics of the journal topic, Second Language Acquisition the assessment of research methodology draws many similarities with my critique of International Development . What Firth indicates is that SLA is understood and researched in terms of a single dominant (Chomskian) paradigm which is foundational in nature. SLA has been significantly influenced by notions of social psychology and individual cognition. Within this context, English is understood in terms of an ‘ideal’, where native speakers pass on their knowledge to the learner. Language is passed between teacher and learner and progress is percieved quantifiable and linear; similar to the progress from Third World poverty to modernity. In contrast, Firth and Wagner use CA to illustrate the fact that this representation is not in fact an accurate reflection of the ways in which speakers interact within social reality. In summary, SLA research is heavily biased towards a single paradigm and needs to include a post structuralist perspective in order to provide a more comprehensive understanding of Acquistion.

By concidence, I later read a paper by London (1993), regarding the failure of education development projects in the Third World (in this case Trinidad). The paper once again notes the issue of Development paradigm, in this case a rational approach to a project typically demanded by the World Bank as the principal funder. The failed projects didnt recognise the difficulties associated with the social realities on the ground. In conclusion, the paper recommended a movement to an interactive (adaptable) paradigm capable of capturing and/or accommodating changes to a project plan.

Finally, a review of the paper written by the London group and the critique of education provision. In the face of advances in media/communication and globalisation, the standard perceptions of knowledge and learning have changed. Uniformity has become an increasingly redundant notion to be replaced by local identity and globalisation. Common standards have receded in parellel with centralised authority, the danger is that the space will be filled not by cosmopolitan notions of tolerance (for difference) but co-opted and constrained by the dead hand of neo-liberalism and the demands of the market. In this context (withdrawal of central authority) and consistent with the ideas of Foucault, knowledge will be comprehended in terms of dominant discourses. According to the London Group then education and pedagogy should be organised such that students are provided with intellectual tools to understand and critique discourses (design and desemmination) as a means of making informed decisions between the availble discourses. Make sense to me

 

Justice

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It is very important to maintain focus on the aims of the research without getting bogged down in related themes. However,  in a field such as International Development it is impossible to avoid the reality of extreme poverty without resorting to notions of justice. In Western terms, justice appears polarised between two distinct poles, that of classical approach represented by Aristotle and the liberal approach, first defined by Kant. Aristotle represented a broadly conversative definition of justice based on the premise of telos (purpose). The this context, justice represents a particular strictly rational interpretation of life and ‘the good’ and it is the function of politics (polis) to define and promote particular roles  ( in terms of honours and social recognition) that reflect particular ends. In contrast, Kant believed that the Telos approach to justice (and a particular understanding of the good) was autocratic and an infringement of personal liberty. Consistent with the spirit of European Enlightenment and liberalism, Kant believed in the autonomy of each individual  to determine their own definition of the ‘good’ according to reason. Unlike the Utilitarian ethic,these universal values were beyond the slavish  (pleasure and pain) instincts, demanding the respect for man as ends in themselves rather than just means. Kant then defended justice as the right to protect this individual freedom to define the good. Rawls agreed with Kant but suggested a more egalitarian approach within the modern context, suggesting that society should be structured to benefit the poorest. In a critique of Autocratic and Meritocratic systems of justice, Rawls argued that natural attributes,  talents and social context are no more than arbrary qualitities. Indeed, the fact that society values and rewards certain attributes over others reflects this historically arbitrary quality. According to this reasoning, individuals do not operate independently of their social-cultural environment and a more egalitarian approach to justice is required. Within the context of Modernity, Rawls has no opposition to significant reward provided it is consistent with a framework of distributive justice that most benefits the poor and marginalised i,e a progressive tax system. The notion of social-cultural difference however challenges to very idea of universal justice. MacIntyre notes that we are all products of our environment and that each of us is born with a past (and to cut ourselves off from that past is to deform our present relationships). i,e. the good is a social-cultural construct that effects our understanding of justice. Naturally this creates a tension between the particular (the local) and the universal notions of justice, tensions that are increasingly evident with the expansion of globalisation and our understanding of Universal Human Rights; often inconsistent with local culture and traditions. Rawls acknowledges this dialectic tension throught the notion of reflective equilibrium, demanding an authentic respect of other peoples points of view. According to Sandel, the typical liberal conception of respect, to accept  others moral or religous convictions is to ignore them, to set them aside as issues not relevant to the political process. However, that isnt the only or indeed the most plausible means of demonstrating respect. Consistent with Rawls notion of reflection, Sandel suggests we should engage with them, sometimes contesting and arguing them but also by listening and learning from them. Naturally there is no guarentee of resolution but an environemt of respectful deliberation and engagement appears to represent a more adequate and constructuve basis for a pluralist society. An environment of moral engagement after all is more likely to reveal the distinctive goods that our different lives express and enrich us all.

 

Post Modernism

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Some quick notes on the paradigm of research:

Crisis: The scientific world and the modernist paradigm have brought technology and material benefits for many but it is also important to recognise its shortcomings. Beyond the manicured (media-controlled) facade, the modern era has also witnessed catastrophic mechanised conflict, needless poverty and famine, inequality and scientific failure on an unprecedented scale. Post-Modernism (PM) then represents a critique of modernist precepts and its assumed pre-eminence as the only authentic source of truth. PM can be described in terms of the skeptic point of view or the more pragmatic affirmative stance. The latter is where I would put myself. A less hard line stance that doesnt negate all of modernism but attempts to place is in a different light.

Abandoning the Author: Within the modern paradigm, the position of truth and authenticity has been allocated to the priveleged position of the author, supported by hard, science-based evidence. However within the PM paradigm, authority is given to the reader and the notion of a text (which is effect is a representation of reality). Its the readers judgement and interpretation that is important rather than the authors opinions.

Subverting the Subject. Though described as an individual with their own subjective opionions, the modern subject is in effect defined by prescriptions of rational modernity; organised, efficient, hard working, aspirational etc. The post-modern paradigm attempts to understand the subject in a genuinely individualistic sense.

History: Similar to the Foucault/Said perpective, history is seen as fragmented and inauthentic representation used as a tool of dominance and oppression. Rather than an esssentialist, unifying and supposedly coherent definition of history Foucault proposes a geneological approach to the understanding of context. Like wise time and space are reinterpreted as fragmented, decentred, dislocated concept that lack the continiuty presumed by modernism. The idea of fragmented space and geography has changed political discourse in terms of international relations and borders in view of modern phenomena such as rural migration and displacment

Tunisian Revolution 2

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After a slightly faltering start with access to only one expensive private school the previous day, I was hoping for a much more productive session. Sirene arrived at the hotel with the driver at 8.30am and we met Hela at the El Omrane school about 10 mins away. Coincidently this was Helas old school, a place where she had been very happy by all accounts. She tells me that whilst it had been a school of very good repute in her day, the immediate area had suffered from some social decline. She therefore categorised the school as an L (lower middle class) rather than an M (middle class) as in years gone by. This was my first real look at the public school and my first impressions were very positive. The school is large, clean and well-ordered with no obvious signs of ill-discipline. You never know what to expect in so called developing countries but Tunisia (considered mid table in terms of HDI and EDI) is certainly not Ghana. We were welcomed by the Director who chatted about the old days for a while with Hela. Suddenly a couple of teachers appeared and we were well into our first interviews. The discussions were more than interesting and its clear that these teachers are no make-weights but well trained professionals.

In the absence of clear aims and guidelines from ASI, Im gonna simply present the work as a pilot study giving the opportunity for teachers to express there chief concerns prior to any further, more detailed research and potential reforms. Myself and Madame J (an English Teacher) talked for nearly an hour before the Director showed up around the school. The classrooms are large and but anodyne, it seems that there are no dedicated rooms and so no opportunity for teachers to customise the environment and make learning a more dynamic and interactive experience. None the less, the rooms were basically equipped and flexible i.e small desks allowing for movement in support of collaborative learning activities. The school is also a pilot school, one that caters for exceptional children from all over the country (with boarding facilities) and which every social class. The director showed us the Art room and some of the murals and painting done by the children, it was also noted that they are working on revolutionary themes, representations that of course were banned under the previous regime. Finally, we were taken to a typical science lab and I had the opportunity to talk for a short while to some students. They crowded around and were very enthusiastic to practice their English. They said they enjoyed school but that its an exhausting experience; too many subjects in the curriculum. This was a very encouraging start to the day and I was very grateful to the Director for dropping everything at short notice and showing me around. Next on the list were schools in Ettahdamen, a poor district that grew spontaneously as a result of increasing rural migration (similar to Aguablanca but with out the conspicuous violence). Like Aguablanca, first impressions are far from negative though solid middle-class types like Sirene and Hela see it differently. Yes, its a poor area but the housing is permanent, the roads are good and all the necessary services and utilities appear to be here. Unlike Cali however there isnt the intensity of violence and so far, no signs of wooden shacks and mountains of displaced people.

The first school was the local Upper Secondary school. The Director was a relatively young man, about my age, well dressed, professional and seemingly positive in a low key kind of way. Difficult to tell as all conversations are done in the local language which appears to be a hybrid of French and Arabic. He naturally was a little bit concerned about the superficial nature of my study so it was fortunately that I had prepared my pilot study spiel and got him to see the positive side of research (that actual registers stakeholder concerns rather than simply imposes ill-considered solutions on them). The teachers (three of them and none of them from language subjects) assembled and also gave me a little of the outsider treatment before agreeing to talk. On discussing the nature of education provision in marginalised districts, the Director pulled out a fist full of long-bladed knives recently confiscated from children on the school premises. It certainly focused attention on the local context and related social concerns. After this institution we remained in the marginalised zone and went to a similar school just down the road, though not on my original list. The Director introduced us to a couple of Language teachers (Italian and English). They didnt seem bothered in the slightest about my motives and happily passed on their concerns.

We made very good progress today and where we were not able to talk to teachers directly due to concerns about institutional instability resulting from a unique set of circumstances, we were able to leave both teacher and parent questionnaires. Naturally, this is not ideal research procedure but neither are these ideal research conditions, in terms of time and resource committed.

After a full day in the saddle, a broad pattern is beginning to emerge. Something like the following:

– Lack of coherence and flexibility in the curriculum. From vision, to objectives, to subjects, to themes, to methods, to materials to testing. All of it has been referenced as some time or other. Could be that the system was adopted to rapidly and without due consideration to context. More time is needed to clarify and embed the curriculum
– Priority schools are not given the priority they need in terms of support and resources in order to operate effectively
– Centralised control means that local Management are unable to solve directly manage their problems
– No authentic mechanism to encourage parental responsibility and avoid shifting the blame for social ills on the teacher.
– School leadership instability. The Directors of schools in Marginalised areas are changed regularly for whatever reason (3 or 4 per decade)

Many of the problems that undermine the public education system here are no doubt prevalent in the deliver of education (particularly in marginalised communities) across the entire world; with the exception of a certain instability created by the revolution and the radical adoption of a progressive agenda and related curriculum (from Canada). Many of the concerns that I will raise were supposed to have been addressed by the 2002 reform, though none of changes comes easy. After an inordinately long day (six schools visited), I finally get back to the ranch and take a breather and a couple of half decent movies on the telly. I just dont have the energy for a load of writing tonight

Tunisian Revolution 1

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No one was on the street today as it was a Sunday and the market place is closed. The focus therefore was on my scheduled meeting with Hela, my guide and local school inspector. First success was to get my internet up and running thanks to the hotels maintenance man, strange how naked you feel without it. I introduced myself and reassured her that I had no axe to grind and no special agenda, she appeared particular pleased to know that I had taught myself and what not simply a medalling researcher. After having discussed my perception of the Tunisian system based on a limited Literature Review, we agreed that quality was the principle concern of education policy since the 2002 reforms and most particular, the secondary level of education. Furthermore, she agreed that the Basic Education curriculum was too congested with no time for sports and art subjects. The current curriculum is apparently based on the notion of integrated competencies (a list of can dos), a system originally imported from Canada that supports critical thinking, the development of life skills and technology all underpinned by a socially constructivist method. All of this is based on authentic Tunisian series of textbooks and appropriate teacher training. All sounds very impressive but it represented a radical departure from the previous system which was predominantly rote based. Hela believes that these reforms represent a positive step but they require more time (currently 9 years) to bed-in before positive results are forthcoming. However, it does appear to create great conflict for the teachers who are attempting to improve the pass rates amongst the students in order to satisfy parents and the authorities but struggling with a radically different pedagogy at the same time i.e. the system may be driven by product rather than process. Hela also insists that the progressive notion of Critical Thinking in no way conflicts with the authentic ontology/worldview of the Tunisian people which is very western in outlook while remaining conscious of their Muslim heritage.

With respect to organisation, the reforms were intended to provide for a decentralisation of education but it seems that this has not yet been reflected on the ground in terms of financial resources and tools within the schools. All in all, Tunisia finds itself at a critical moment in the educational lifecycle just at the time when significant political change is anticipated. Hela suggests that it is the businessmen and corporate leaders that are filling the political vacuum left by Ben Ali which would suggest that things will progress in a similar Eurocentric direction provided the right people win power at the 24th July elections. However she fears the rise of religious fundamentalism and the loss of the secular equality first established in 1956 on independence from France.

The day started somewhat slowly and inauspiciously as Brian attempted to seek further permission from the authorities to enter the specific list of secondary schools that I had identified for research. It certainly wasnt the flying start that I had hoped for but thats common in research, particularly when dealing with bureaucracy. Meanwhile, myself and Hela agreed to meet at 1.30pm and visit a adjacent pair of local independent school that she thought would be amenable to our uninvited approach. For the intervening hours, I started to prepare the final report (before I’d even started the study) and fill in a few of the contextual details not dependent on the data gathering process.

As Im now settled into the hotel, I often go down to the restaurant to write as its a more public environment and certainly more convivial than my room. As I was setting up my computer, I got talking to a lady at the opposite table. Fanta happens to work for the World Bank in Geneva but is here in Tunis for a job interview with the African Development Bank. She is originally from Guinea and is keen to return to Africa after many years in Europe, so naturally I took the opportunity to talk about my work here and the broader issues of education and private schools for the poor. She was very interested in the topic, gave me her card and asked me to keep in touch, particular if I was intending to do research in SSA. We exchanged cards and I gave a shout to Tooley and Dixon and the E.G.West website and lets hope we can remain in contact.

At the appointed hour, I met up with Hela and also Serine, my second assistant who works directly for Brian. Though I dont think she has any experience in the education system, she is multi-lingual and seemingly enthusiastic and lets be honest, I need all the help that I can get right now. Serine was on her way to the MoE with my list for approval but she was able to drop off the questionnaires and would attempt to catch us up later that afternoon. Meanwhile, Hela and myself headed up the road to this pair of independent schools. Both institutions were large, imposing and seemingly well-appointed, at least the reception areas gave very self-confident impression. This was not misplaced as apparently these are amongst the most prestigious of independent schools in the city. It seems neither of these institutions have subsided places for the poor but the story is not quite that simple. According to Hela, the state runs an additional set of Pilot schools for gifted children with entrance from across the social spectrum and purely based on exam performance and a supplementary entrance test. Hela indicated that the Pilot schools rightly, have a reputation as very demanding even for clever kids, though the curriculum does include art subjects and sport, something for which the public system simple doesnt have the time. Hela informed me that out of loyalty to the public system (within which she taught for 17 years), she didnt send her boy to the pilot school, though he was presented with the opportunity. This point appeared to be an opportune moment to ask about parental choice, an issue apparently close to her heart as she is unhappy with the secondary school that her daughter attends. It would appear that the system functions in the standard form. You are obliged to send your children to the local school and whilst there is a mechanism for appeal, the director has the final say over attendance, so naturally he only chooses the brightest children when faced with an inbox of applicants. Hela also confessed to having circumvented the system at primary level having used her parents address to get her kids into a good institution. All the common loopholes right.

We were pretty much fobbed off at the first school with the Director only agreeing to meet us by appointment and refusing to allow us access to the Teachers on the grounds that there was currently too much institutional instability in the aftermath of the revolution. However, we were met with a far more positive reception at the DAngola school. Whilst we didnt get to meet the Head directly, we were given time with his PA who supplied us with a good deal of information, took our questionnaires and promised a direct meeting with Teachers on Friday morning at 11.30. Despite the apparent privilege associated with this upper-middle class school, it seems appearances are deceptive. According to our informer, this posh institution was perceived as rebellious by the previous regime and Ben Ali was keen to establish a level of greater control over it; a battle he rather surprisingly has lost. We didnt have enough time to go into the nature of its subversive activities, however it seems that it supplemented the central curriculum with additional subjects such as Social Hygiene (which I interpreted as Social Justice), Environmental studies and Technology (including the Internet and Facebook). It also appeared to give relative freedom to the teachers in terms of classroom methods e.g. in languages classes the teacher could choose between communicative or grammar-based (linguistic) approaches to teaching. Hardly radical in broad terms but possibly significant within the local context. Furthermore, rather than use state language material, the school had purchased textbooks directly from country of origin i.e. English Books from Oxford University Press. Seems like a good idea at a superficial level but of course, students can struggle with material that doesnt suit the context of learning. Nonetheless, for an independent school to invest in this way may represent a negative critique of the Tunisia language textbooks. Through Hela, we provided a detailed description of the questionnaires before leaving our charming host to get on with her pressing schedule; a queue had already formed as a consequence of our unexpected arrival.

We departed having made our first kill and feeling much better about the world. Sirene also had a degree of success, the authorities having agreed to let us have access to public secondary schools, though only 5 of the original list of 20. Hardly ideal but thems the rules and Hela suggested that she also could use her connections to get access to other groups of teachers beyond those agreed. Once again, not ideal but you have to work within the given constraints. On the more positive side, I have convinced Hela that despite her reservations and safety concerns, we have to go to the poor districts of Kabaria and Ettadhaman in order to get a representative sample. So Serine has got us a driver and we start at 8am tomorrow with our first public school at El Omrane.

No Triangulation

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Its been a long while since my blog entry but the delay has been significant, particularly in terms of my methodology. As previous entries will testify, I was very much inclined to use Conversation Analysis techniques as a means of characterising interaction between children within the SOLE. The degree of detail associated with this approach however was a consistent source of concern to me and at no point was I totally committed to CA as a research method. In fact, the singular reason I stuck to CA for such a protracted period of time was because of its notional links with learning and in particular, Second Language Acquisition (SLA). However in view of the micro-levels of detail required and the apparent distance from content and context, I didnt see how I could link CA with personal notions of change/progress in the realm of International Development, after that is what I do. Secondly, the children in Ghana will mostly be interacting in Fante, a language (and associated culture) that I dont understand. Hence valid interpretation of interaction would be very difficult to establish or sustain without ongoing support from a training interpreter. So I have decided to drop CA and have taken a more general approach to research, namely grounded theory and thematic analysis; remaining consistent with my post-structuralist stance.

The question however remains the same; how do children organise their learning in the absence of a teacher. Clearly, reading (as the principal English Acquisition skill) will play a significant part in this process (as learning is computer mediated). It is important to note however, that at this point I dont think it will be possible to test reading improvement. This is because nothing is known about student aims and the learning process itself (self-organised). Whilst it is strongly presumed that socio-cultural means will be adopted by the students to establish learning aims and strategies, one can only define related test objectives once the reading process is characterised. I currently believe that this is a post-doctoral activity and that SOLE exploration will not require any form of triangulation associated with positivist style testing.

Meanwhile, I think it is vital (in self organising terms) not to impose any form of agenda on the young participants i.e. I want to avoid prescribed learning in relation to the Ghanaian curriculum. Though curcumventing any contradiction with the principal research aims, it does creates potential practical issues in relation to access (to marginalised children). It my intention therefore to go to Ghana during the school term and set up a pitch in the street for local hawkers and street children only (other childern being in school). The computers will be accessible all day but only eight children will have access to two computers at any one time. How the children organise themselves (who turns up and when, who works with who etc) over this period of time will be an central theme of the anaylsis. The essential problem will be identifying which specific periods of data to analyse in detail. Some sort of selection criteria will be required. I will also need to put my plan to supervisors, the panel and Ken to see if it is feasible.

TARF

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In preparation for my review panel which is very much overdue, I have created a presentation for the TARF. I dont know what the acronym means but its an opportunity to present your research to the other PhD students. My presentation is in essence a summary of the Literature Review with an emphasis on the test criteria as that is the area I am having most problems overcoming. Most of the PhD students and all of the TARF regulars are linguitists which should be helpful when it comes to the critique of my Second Langauge Acquisition framework.

Whilst I had only prepared 11 slides, the presentation ultimately required two sessions and three hours to complete. The group appeared to be interested in the research topic and I very much enjoyed the experience however, the panel itself is only 15 mins in duration so Im going to have to spend a little time cutting down on material. The first half of the presentation is contextual and provides the political, social and economical background required to appreciate education provision in Ghana. The second half describes the specifics of the research in relation to the methodology and the theory underpinning the potential list of assessment tools. According to Keevers (International Education Handbook) educational research addresses three learning areas: Psycho-motor, Affective and Cognitive. The psycho-motor area relates to the development of infants and young children and is therefore not considered appropriate. The cognitive area is focused on assessment that tests comprehension as defined by Blooms Taxonomy. Whilst there is no definitive learning theory associated with the SOLE, Distributed Cognitive Theory and Self Regulated Learning were mentioned as related research topics worthy of investigation. To this cognitive area, I have attached Second Language Acquisition. In view of its importance in the curriculum and its particular relevance to the SOLE. The intention is to test communication competence as the SOLE will provide an immersion environment based on implicit rather than explicit learning. Whilst recognising the complications of testing and potential validity problems, the TARF accepted that this approach was more relevant to the Ghanaian context than a psycho-linguistic assessment. Finally, I addressed the Affective area but as no one in the room had had experience in this domain the Willingness to Communicate model went unquestioned.

In conclusion, there were no major issues highlighted by the TARF that were likely to upset my existing research framework. This positive response was supplemented by the meeting with the Prof. in advance of the TARF who indicated that he was happy with current progress and believed that the research was eminently practical and doable. He is currently reviewing the latest copy of the Literature Review so we shall see.

Education for the 21st Century

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Could a vision of the future effect the current definition of education provision in the Developing World

Education for the future (Beare and Slaughter, 1993) delivers an effective critique of the reductionist tendencies of the scientific method, leading to a paradigm that is inappropriate for a post-industrial world faced with increasing conflict, social decay and environmental degradation. This economic growth paradigm emerged from the enlightenment period in the misplaced believe that in science and rational thought, humankind has been given control over nature. Newton-Cartesian thought then provided the myth/symbolism that underpinned the notion of development, industrial growth, capitalism and individualism. These values subsequently provide the basis for education not simply in terms of the curriculum content but also the nature of institutional relationships (dominance, competition, meritocratic). The contemporary system places value currently places value on measurable, subject based attributes (scientific reductionism) whilst ignoring all other potential benefits associated with schooling and communal responsibility; even the institution of school is run like a business on the basis of economic viability. The authors recommend that control be wrestled back from accountants and economists.

Whilst careful not to condemn the industrial age and the benefits of science, the authors argue that we are now moving toward a post-industrial era that must be equally cognisant of the future (self fulfilling) as it is of the past. Beare and Slaughter argue that the post-industrial age will require a new myth and an associated set of values that shift attention from individual needs to a holistic vision that encompasses global responsibility. The new myth requires a shift in world-view away from the positivist, rational paradigm toward the qualitative point of reference that is the familiar world of culture, of human meaning, of imagination and the symbolic transformation of experience (Fraser, 1978; p64).

Whilst this theme may be beyond the immediate scope of my research, it does identify and reinforce the significance of symbols and values in relation to education and the future of the next generation. What is required therefore is not only an understanding of the institutional values that define the existing system (a mixture of colonial, pan-African and EFA/production) but also the potential conflict with the authentic social values of contemporary Ghana. Ironically it seems that the post-industrial myth of holistic responsibility portrayed by Beare and Slaughter has far more in common with the myths and values of traditional African society than the industrial agenda promoted by the EFA. On the other hand, theory suggests that development is only attainable through production and economic growth and whilst the developed world is moving toward a post-industrial reality it is busy exporting its productive capacity to the poorer parts of the world.

What the movement toward a post-industrial vision infers is a qualitative paradigm as a basis for research and change. This shift is highly appropriate when moving undertaking research in a foreign country, as it would be highly unethical to impose a form of education without an understanding of the values that underpin the indigenous society. On the other hand, the Ghanaian government has adopted the market agenda of the Washington consensus and the rational approach to development, production and school curricula that membership entails. History also suggests that African population continue to value the western (over the traditional or basic) approach to education with its focus on qualification and achievement, despite the fact that this system (transmission and assessment) is designed to operate in favour of a small ‘informed’ proportion of the population.

Policy Docs

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Scanned Policy literature:

Global Trends in Education Policy – (eds) Baker & Wiseman: Chapters of particular interest included (1) FPE in Malawi (Haulger, D) tracing how the initial enthusiasm for state education has deteriorated and discussing the existing discrepancy between state objectives and opinion and the reality on the ground, most notably in terms of the drawbacks associated with democratisation. (2) Globalisation and Stigma (Haulger, D) decribing how failure in the formal education system (non-enrollment, non-completion, non successful etc.) creates child stigmatisation, not in the modern perspective but ironically in the traditional perspective.

In following up references in this book, I have also traced a whole bundle of UNESCO policy documents associated with Ghana. From an Alexanderian (culture and values) perspective, the official mission statement appears to have nothing to do with any local/traditional objectives related to community/social cohesion etc and everything to do with a western (EFA) agenda of production and quality.

Further to the research objectives, I have found a definition to self organised learning that might help me reveal a potential theory: autodidacticism or self learning. I need to link this to Vygotsky’s social cultural theory if possible. I have ordered an electronic book by Joan Solomon (A Passion to Learn) on the subject.

Also Bray et al in Comparative and International Research in Education have cogently reiterated the political significance of education and the importance of cultural sensitivity in research noting the importance of narrative and discourse theory as a means of characterising contextual settings. To this end also note Cummings et al (2001) and his contribution to values education in comparative research and NEPAD in relation to African Self-Determination. Bray also assesses the impact of the World Bank and particularly the fall out of the SAP in HIPC.

In the context of overpowering Western influence in developing nations Bray et al assess the impact of western ideas and experts and the subsequent marginalisation of local traditional knowledge and ways of perception. Finally, Bray assesses financiers and the World Bank continued predeliction with Beckers Human Capital theory and its potential conflict with educations authentic role in developing world society

Post Alexander

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Alexanders Five Culture study provides a seemingly comprehensive guide to the assessment and comparison of a variety of mass education systems in different parts of the world. The study starts by providing a definition of culture and its relationship with education. Culture is principally reflected in the distribution of authority, the mission statement, goals and the curriculum. The institution of school is a delivery system of values hence its political significance. The Indian environment can be most readily correlated with the Ghana system. Both are ex-colonial and have difficulty with educational resourcing associated with poverty while the culture remains strongly influenced by traditional (social) values.

Although each of the five nations has its own particular approach to schooling and education, there is sufficient similarity between them to allow Alexander to derive a framework for comparison and a valid methodology; all systems are focused on the idea of knowledge acquisition through classrooms and teachers. In terms of cultural analysis beyond the classroom much of this framework could be applied to my own study. However, the method falls short in relation to the internal comparison of the formal/monitorial methods and a SOLE environment focused on out-doctrination (Mitra); in the absence of a school and a teacher, culture/values are allowed to emerge spontaneously through social interaction between students as opposed to the imposition (indoctrination) of the formal system. In other words, breakdown of classroom functions (activities, tasks and resulting dialog) following a predined plan is not relevant to the SOLE, consequently Alexanders design is not appropraite for in-classroom comparison.

In order to derive a suitable comparative methodology, the researcher needs to understand the theory that underpins learning within the SOLE. In the absence of a theory, the epistemology would be considered inductive i.e an hypothesis would emerge from the research environment. In the meantime, neo-Vygotskian writers and articles will provide the basis for the latest part of the Lit Review in search of theoretical pointers. Reviews to date consistently indicate that student collaboration is a positive classroom phenomena, however all have been structured in some way in order to maximise cognitive outcomes; dedicated software, teacher scaffolding, pre-teaching to promote interpretive questioning. Both Piaget and Vygotsky insist that real learning requires a careful planning of activities and tasks beyond simply grouping children together, a belief that is challenged by the SOLE. Assessment i.e discourse analysis, is further complicated by the specific nature of a learning environment where little in known about the cultural values and the social language is Fanti.