Having generated a principal objective, I need to consider a respective plan of action. This one is based on the output from the meeting with Sugata.

a) Identify a target population: The focal point for the investigation is the semi-rural town of Kasoa in Ghana. The sample population will be drawn from government schools, private schools and excluded children from the local area.
Action 1: Determine optimum and practical population size in terms of the number of participating schools and students.
Action 2: Contact the local authorities in order to obtain permission to undertake research in government institutions.
Action 3: Contact local private schools that may be willing to participate in the research
Action 4: Identify and recruit excluded children from the local community

b) Identify appropriate material for the SOLE.
Action 1: Confirm the curriculum (school year) from which learning objectives will be extracted
Action 2: Review the curriculum and identify a consolidated set of learning objectives.
Action 3: Clarify the rationale for using specific forms of media (video, computer, Skype) within the SOLE
Action 4: Identify appropriate material (video, internet, downloads etc) most closely related to the learning objectives as a basis for the SOLE.
Action 5: Confirm the hardware requirement for the SOLE (number of computers, internet, TV/DVD)

c) Construct parellel strands of assessment.
Action 1: Review and extract questions from previous exam papers
Action 2: Identify theory and framework for preparing the shadow (unseen) questions (used for assessing depth of understanding)

d) The SOLE is overseen by a mediator
Action 1: Identify and recruit a local member of the community from beyond the realm of education.

e) The monitorial school is led by an adult mediator and a select group of monitors
Action 1: Identify and recruit a local member of the community from beyond the realm of education.
Action 2: Identify and recruit a number of recent high school graduates (monitors) to lead the monitorial classes
Action 3: Prepare a teaching and procedural package for the monitors based on the learning objectives

f) Behavioural Analysis
Action 1: Identify theoretical framework and assessment criteria associated with the analysis of behaviour and self concept.

g) Qualitative Assessment
Action 1: Clarify ontological and epistemological stance. Correlate with an appropriate research strategy (probably Mixed Method Case Study)
Action 2: Identify qualitative assessment criteria and the most appropriate means to promote the children voice.

In terms of ongoing monitoring of progress, I need to develop a management structure (possible establishing three discrete threads related to each learning environment).

After a meeting with Sugata that did much to clarify the objective and potential scope of my research programme, the principal objective has been amended to the following;

Does the Self-Organised Learning Environment – SOLE (as defined by Mitra) promote deeper learning in children excluded from the education system in the developing world: A comparison of formal and informal education in Ghana, West Africa.

The research effectively represents a comparison of learning outcomes in relation to the following systems: a) formal public and/or private schools. b) monitorial method c) SOLE.

The principal points agreed with Sugata are listed as follows:

1) In relation to Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive process, deeper learning is related to ‘understanding’ as opposed to simple ‘remembering/recalling’

2) On the understanding that the SOLE will be computer based, the development of literacy skills and particularly reading will be a significant outcome. Therefore testing will also be supplemented by an assessment of reading ability.

3) The assessment will be based on two related strands of questioning derived from selected areas of the curriculum. The first strand of (known) questions will be directly related to the curriculum i.e standard exam questions. The second strand will represent a set of parellel, related but unknown (to the teacher) questions that will be used to assess the depth of student understanding .i.e. the application of a principle in an unfamiliar context.

4) This alternative set of questions must be sufficiently related to the curriculum that it represents a fair test but sufficiently different to represent a valid assessment of understanding. A theoretical rationale will be required as a basis for the parellel set of questions.

5) On the present assumption that children are particularly stimulated by visual media (a postulate requiring some supporting evidence), it is proposed that the SOLE is supplemented by Skype and films with subtitles, as a vehicle for promoting literacy skills. Moreover, it was suggested that a range of viewing material be provided with choice turned into a classroom activity i.e children are required to read an abstract/reviews before discussing and democratically selecting a preference. Naturally, there will be additional questions related to the viewed material, whilst meaning will be collectively derived based on exchanges in L1 and L2.

6) The use of the word collaborative (as in computer supported collaborative environment) is too emotive and doesn’t accurately reflect student interaction within the SOLE context (tasks are not pre-planned such that activity is evenly distributed amongst participating members). Sugata believes that children will either get the attention and support they need from the group to which they are immediately associated or they will simply move to a different group (an action permissable within the SOLE context). On this basis, there is no requirement for developing further software/applications/scripts specifically for the SOLE.

7) The assessment can be further developed by incorporating behavioural measurement into the research based on video recordings and on/off task analysis.

8) Sugata doesn’t believe that research of child perception related to the value of education in the given context would necessary produce a meaningful result. This is not due to lack of interest but simply a limited awareness of the available options.

9) In view of his experience working with SOLE, Sugata recommends that the age range is limited to children below thirteen years old as they are more receptive to the notion of learning. In general, the inclusion of older children in the given context is likely to result in a greater prevalence of behavioural issues and should therefore be the subject of separate research.

10) The research period should be at least a year in length, in order that the benefits of the SOLE environment have sufficient time to emerge.

11) The monitorial method should closely reflect that witnessed in India (the BBC film). Bright students in the formal system will be required to teach their excluded peers the chosen parts of the curriculum. Obviously careful scheduling and some form of incentive will be required in order to motivate the monitors.

12) The research should be limited to outcomes (cognitive, behavioural, affective). An analysis of the underlying mechanism of learning (particilarly in relation to SOLE) is beyond the scope of the research, though reference to the work of Piaget and Vygotsky in relation to Peer Assisted Learning is appropriate.

Had my first opportunity to talk to Pauline since she returned from India. She is supportive of my religned proposal (toward a social cultural approach) but like Sugata suggests that a pilot study related to the monitorial method could provide additional material for thesis. Sugata also suggested that if children are making progress within a CSCL environment, they could then be offered the opportunity to focus on a specific areas of learning i.e literacy through a phonics programme taught by the monitorial method.

In view of the significance of context, we have agreed that it is appropriate to assess the perceptions of the children with regards to their needs. The questionnaire format is not deemed appropriate in this context as the form of the questions would evitably be leading. Therefore the objective setting process will be guided by an informal set of focus group interviews asking what knowledge children want to learn and how they want to learn it i.e. a new learning environment (as opposed to school) is to be created, what do you want from it? Drawings could also be used a a means of promoting child voice and determining requirements.

This activity could commence in the relatively near future and will be used to guide the subsequent research process. In terms of short term objectives, I need to research focus group interviews with children and children’s voice.

Having spent many months collecting and organising my literature review it is time to make a start. The principal sections are listed as follows:

1) Context: Political, Social and Economic landscape. What are the charactistics of poverty in Ghana
2) Poverty and Education: Establishing the formal connection made by the UN/EFA. Describing the emergence of private schools in Ghana. Identifying the group of children excluded from education and the reasons for there omission.
3) Education Policy Development: How has the formal education structure and curriculum developed in Ghana since the arrival of the first foreign traders in the 16th century. Reference is made to the use of the Monitorial system in the early 19th century (Graham, 1971)
4) African Culture: What is the nature of traditional education. How does if differ from the formal structure and was is the impact of learning in a second language, in this case English.
5) PAL Intervention: What is the theoretical basis of peer tutoring and what are the potential benefits in the given context.

Returning to an interesting and very relevant book that I referenced as part of my climate study in Colombia: School Management and Effectiveness in Developing Countries by Harber and Davies.

The book opens with a description of the dimensions of context within which schools in the developing world are required to operate. The principal aspects of each dimension is described as follows (and will provide a suitable model for the description of context in relation to Ghana):

Demographic Context
– Increasing birth leading proportional growth in the school population
– High drop out rate and the school schedule does suit the needs of the students
– Rural to Urban migration

Economic Context
– Low expenditure per student
– Fragile economies exposed to global markets
– High levels of debt
– Falling GDP per capita
– Decreasing consumption
– Falling public expenditure
– Structural Adjustment Programme demands

Resource Context
– Overcrowded classrooms
– Few material resources
– Poorly maintained school
– Underpaid and demotivated teachers

Violence Context
– High civilian casualties (dead and wounded)
– Destruction of education property and facilities
– Gangs and guns remain a threat even when the war has ended

Health Context
– Hunger and malnourishment are commonplace
– The poor are more vulnerable to disease
– Climate change and drought are effecting increasing numbers of poor

Cultural Context
– Different set of values

Harber and Davies then turn their attention to the notion of school effectiveness itself and describe the difficult of establishing a consistent set of criteria in relation to the developing world. Through a meta-analysis of school research they conclude that there is no definitive answer, however the following consistent set of factors have been identified:
1) The effect of educational processes on student achievement are larger in developing countries. In effect, the school a pupil attends makes more of a difference to their eventual academic attainment compared to home background than in industrialised nations. This does not mean that background curcumstances are diminished in importance.
2) The factors associated with school effectiveness are probably different from those in industrialised nations
3) The factors differ within countries labelled as developing.
4) Factors generate significant findings for goals of economic growth. Benavot study over 25 years (linking education to GDP) indicated a positive relationship with the number of instructional hours across all subjects but a negative effect on practical education. Furthermore and contrary to popular wisdom, there was no effect associated with maths and a language whilst a positive impact was identified in relation to music and art. Whilst it is important not to jump to conclusions in relation to policy, it provides a warning with regard to an ill-considered allocation of resources to maths, english and vocational courses.

In conclusion, effectiveness can only be understood in relation to a clear set of context related goals (why is education necessary) and a matching assessment mechanism. The significance of the assessment mechanism is that once understood, schools can set themselves up to satisfy those goals alone i.e. good test results, whilst ignoring the broader significance of education. According to Harber and Davies therefore effectiveness management evolves from two interlocking variables; goals and culture. Consequently, effectiveness programmes linked to comparisons based on examination success are doomed to failure on the basis that they ignore all other possible goals of school and student learning. This is particularly the case in the Africa where an traditional style of education runs in parellel to the formal system.

Getting back to education in the developing world, Daley et al as part of educational studies in rural Kenya investigated the effect of background and classroom correlates on child achievement and behaviour. The measure and procedures are listed as follows: 1) Social Economic Status (SES). 2) Standardised test scores from school in seven subjects. 3) Cognitive tests including the Verbal Meaning Test (similar to the Peabody Picture Vocab test – Dunn & Dunn, 1981), 4. An arithmetic test adapted from the WISC-R. It is important to note that the cognotive test were underaken in the local vernacular. 4a) Behavioural test including on-task observation and 4b) a teacher rating of student behaviour, items include emotion, task persistence, social competence etc. 5) Classroom quality meaasures including assessment of the teacher in terms of organisational skills and teacher interest. The lessons were also vidoetaped and teacher performance was assessed in terms of tone, emotion and behaviour.

Results suggest that cognitive and behavioural outcomes were more closely linked to school quality than background variables, a finding consistent with other research (Heyneman & Loxley, 1983). Of the four teacher qualitilies measured only classroom organisation was a consistent predictor of outcomes, the remainder producng inconsistent results i.e teacher interest and experience were found to be inverse predictors. This study also found no relationship with outcomes and class size, although higher levels of off-task behaviour were observed and deemed to have a negative, indirect impact over a longer timescale.

From a practical view point, this study points to the range of tools that could be employed as part of the classroom characterisation process within the peer learning environment. This include: 1) background factors (SES) 2) parents education 3) cognitive ability 4) literacy and arithmetic ability 5) behaviour 6) teacher performance. This approach should be supplemented by a interpretist tool in order to obtain teacher and student opinions of education in general and the peer learning environment specifically.

The study highlights the potential significance of background SES influences when attempting to characterise a classroom in the developing world. The different question is whether SES represents a positivist or an interpretivist vector.

In terms of the learning tools that could be employed in the research, Pauline introduced me to the most relevant aspects of the Jolly phonics package including a teaching manual that can form the basis of the monitor training programme. The basic format is 42 days in duration, a single hour per day for each of the phonemic sounds. The learning framework is based on monitor modelling, reinforcement and blending strategies as a means of familiarising the student with individual and sounds and word pronunciation. The approach is a mixture of direct teaching and peer tutoring focussed on large (teacher) textbook and an associated (student)workbook. Whilst there is a lot of associated material, it would appear that the teaching approach remains consistent i.e once the framework is understood and the sounds have been learned, the monitor should be able to progress relatively unaided. Depending on the extent of the learning goals, Pauline has also recommended Read, Write Inc materials (developed by Ruth Mishkin) as a means of practicing elementary reading and comprehension skills.

Naturally, it would be very handy to find a similar tool for teaching arithmetic. Pauline has recommended Maths Makes Sense which in itself was also recommended by Mishkin.

As a means of providing a contextual backdrop to the research, I have been rereading Grahams History of Education in Ghana.

It is important to note that the term itself refers to the development of education in the formal, institutional sense, as opposed to the informal, traditional form at the heart of African culture and identity. In general terms, informal education represents an holistic approach that inculcates the child with the knowledge, skills and attitutes that enable them to handle themselves and their environment successfully. In contrast, formal education has tended to prioritise knowledge at the expense of other aspects of our personality on the basis that increased knowledge will lead to positive changes in attitude and behaviour. As the definitions illustrate, this paradox is far more than mere semantics and remains to this day, the fundamental issue that divides perception in relation to Africa curriculum development.

Formal education was introduced with the arrival of the colonial powers in the 16th century. The first recorded school was built by the Portuguese in the area referred to as the Gold Coast in 1529. From this time onward, the region grew in significance as it became a centre of commerce between the indigenous traders and the European seafaring powers of the era (Britian, Spain, Portugal, Holland). In addition to trade in basic commodities, it should also be noted that the Gold Coast became notorious as a major operating hub for the slave trade, from where vast numbers of Africans were shipped to plantations in the New World. Nunn has argued that the devastating loss of human capital, in addition to the violence, division and exploitation wraught by the industry established the basis for the continental poverty that persists to this day.

As the region grew in commercial significance, the British (as the emerging colonial power) recognised the urgent need for literate interpreters, prompting the first generation of formal schools for mulatto children (Expats with African wives) in the Cape Coast region, privately funded by the African Company and various acts of philanthropy. Whilst religion and moral education was introduced into the curriculum at Elmina school in 1752 (by the Rev T.Thompson), it remained of secondary importance to the commercial needs until the end of the 19th century.

Although beyond direct government control at this time, the shape of education development in the colonies was inevitably influenced by ideas emanating from Britain as it progressed along the path of industrialisation. This included the introduction of the monitorial system (Bell and Lancaster) which was seen as an effective means of delivering basic, cheap education to the masses. The associated curriculum was based on English literacy, basic arithmetic and moral/religious education. Most significantly, the role of teachers was undertaken by a cohort of select students using a simple rote method. History suggests that despite a period of popularity in Britian, the monitorial system was not deployed to any appreciable extent within the Gold Coast region. It eventually fell out of favour completely as a result of criticism associated with the its simplistic standardisation of the learning process, the prescriptive system of rewards and punishments, rote teaching methods and the conspicuous application of market forces within the classroom which was interpreted as a divisive instrument, representative of the deep social and economic divisions of the period (Foucault).

Meanwhile in view of its growing significance, overall responsibility for the school system in the Gold Coast was transferred from the African Company to the state (1835). Furthermore, the acceptance of English Law by the majority of the Fanti chiefs cleared the path for the entry of the missionary schools. At this time, three parellel bodies rose to pre-eminence; the Government schools, the Wesleyan schools and the Basel school (of German origin). The Privy Council report of 1847 influenced by Wesleyan Rev. Freeman led to a fundamental reorganisation of education based on the principles of christian values and manual labour, worthwhile occupations for school leavers and government grants for schools. Despite these efforts to popularise education by the mid 19th century, it was generally perceived as a status symbol in the rise of a new society of which the tribal chiefs and their sons were the principal beneficiaries. It would appear that the broader population were decidely ambivalent, seeing little contextual value in a formal education beyond a certain level.

Despite periodic conflict with the Ashanti tribes of the north, the level of British political ambition in the region increased with the demise of slavery (and the expansion of credit facilities to a wage-earning indigenous population). Consequently, the second half of the 19th century witnessed significant growth of the local economy in harness with a rapid, government supported expansion of the Missionary schools. This expansion became official government policy in 1852 which included the imposition of a Poll Tax to support improved public services. Meanwhile back in Britain, Forsters Elementary Education Act of 1870 and the creation of School Boards (free schooling) triggered a change in the nature of delivery with the introduction of free education. A similar law/ordinance was passed on the Gold Coast in 1882, granting government aid to schools in accordance standards witnessed by government inspectors. The curriculum was also expanded to include drawing industrial instruction and Physical exercise.

By the turn of the century the total number of school children was in excess of 4000, while the distribution of schools on the Gold Coast was as follows: Government (7), Basel mission (61), Wesleyan (49), Bremen (3), Catholic (12). There is no figure for the number of missionary schools not in receipt of a subside. By 1925 this profile had growm to 30,000 children within 236 Government and assisted schools and a curriculum that also included local languages (Twi and Fanti). Reforms followed in 1942 as a means of improving the quality of education and 1951 to develop a balanced system working toward universal education (as finance would allow).

In conclusion, education in Ghana has been heavily influenced by western perceptions and ideas (particular those from Britain) that persist to this day. Whilst Africans continue to relate education to prestige and (relatively) high rewards, the system is skewed towards the elite who are most able to benefit from the limited number of white collar job opportunities available. Whilst educational progress by the less privileged sectors of indigenous society (poor, rural communities) has been continually undermined by politics and finance, it would seem that they have consistently rejected vocational programmes (numerous failed agricultural and industrial training experiments) in favour of academic training despite the absence of related employment opportunities. As suggested by Bray, this apparent rejection of blue collar work has resulted in a transition from rural underemployment to open unemployment in urban areas.

As yet, I have not received a response from either SEAMOE (IMPACT customers) or IDRC (IMPACT Donors) with regarded to detailed information or analysis of the programme. However, I have found a document dating back to March 1980 that provides the first clear definition of the curriculum and the form of the delivery system. The project principles are listed as follows:

1. The project subjects are in need of a primary education. The students themselves can be in-school, out-of-school or adults.
2. The essence of education is the learning process (I am unsure of the true significance of this statement)
3. Learning can take place anywhere.
4. Multiple Entry and Exit points. Solve the drop-out problem
5. Progress in based on mastery and individual speed
6. Education is a socialising process with training in leadership
7. Education is the responsibility of parents, the community and the government. (That final part is obviously open to debate)
8. The teacher is the manager/facilitator of the learning process

The document then follows a distinctly positivist approach to cirruculum design (Blooms taxomony) following a logical path from national development goals (based on the curious notion of a new Filipino) through teaching strategies and terminating with the definition of classroom actions and anticipated Student outcomes and behaviours. Whilst the superstructure of the programme is very clear, this approach raises a potentially awkward ontological question of the rational approach to education and Africans traditional/spiritual view of life i.e there is more to learning than tangible, measured outcomes. On the other hand, the simplicity of classroom procedures is paramount for reasons that shall soon become clear.

The curriculum appears to be focused on literacy, numeracy and practical skills. The school population is seperated into basic (1-3)and advanced (4-6) streams and framed within an instruction based delivery system (form of learning) with the following operating modes:

1. Programmed Teaching: The more experienced students teach the less experienced students based on a predefined set of scripts (levels 6, 5, 4 teach levels 1,2,3 respectively). The groups have 4-8 students for each student teacher (with a combination of mixed ability groups forming discrete family). There is 30 mins of teaching followed by 30mins of direct tutoring for the slower students in the group and a limit of one task per class. A number of teaching strategies have been identified, each with their own set of predefined scripts as the basis for the teaching process. The strategies follow a same basic form:

Step 1: The teacher presents a task to be performed (skill or small body of information) and asks the student to perform the task .i.e you are to sound a letter. What is this sound of this letter.
Step 2: The teacher demonstrates the correct response or teaches part of the task the pupil didnt perform correctly.
Step 3: Repeat step 1
Step 4: The teacher asks the group to perform the task which the student performed correctly or the teacher demonstrated.

At first glance is seems to me that steps 1 and 2 should exchange places. Surely the student-teacher is required to provide a correct demonstration of the task before expecting an appropriate response. Whatever the correct version, the process is rote-based (therefore culturally familiar) and simple to model as a basis for training adolescent teachers.

2. Peer Group Learning (Advanced Stream): Elder pupils who are on the second half of the continuum (levels 4-6) use the peer group learning mode. Each group is composed of 6 members (max) who are heterogeneous in ability but who are studying on the same core modules. Each member of the group takes turns in acting as group leader and in answering questions. Contracting is an integral part of Peer Group Learning. Simply, a group promises, in writing, to complete a number of modules for the week. Due recognition is made of the performance of each group with respect to its contract. The majority of learning time for Levels 4-6 is given to peer-group learning. The main reason for this is to enable the children to help each other. This model would appear to have some similarity with the constructivist environment defined by Piaget and described in some detail in my original proposal.

3. Individualised Study (Advanced Stream): One period each day is given over to “individual pursuits”. This is the hour during which the more able students study enriched advanced modules (alone or in small groups). This is also the hour during which the less able members of peer groups review and study the core module which the whole group had been studying during the previous three period. This review period is often undertaken with a more knowledgable peer in a similar form to the peer tutoring model defined by Vygotsky which also formed part of my original proposal.

Based on the IMPACT format, it is suggested that a single Instruction Supervisor (adult teacher) can facilitate/oversee the learning of 200 students simultaneously. The overriding question remains, is it possible to extract a portion of IMPACT for research purposes based on a set of Kasoan priorities, without losing the intrinsic meaning and purpose of the programme. I might not be able to answer this question until after the research is complete but I wont be able to get started until I have a definitive set of project requirements based on Ghanaian development needs, curriculum aims and objectives, intended learning experience etc.

Finally, there is the question of sustainability. A report dating back to the late 1970s suggested that whilst the learning procedure produced positive student outcomes (in relation to control groups), the project expanded very rapidly (in the shape of Community Learning Centres) with varying degrees of success. However a contemporary, Enhanced programme (e-IMPACT) has since been commissioned, suggesting that the SEAMOE have confidence in IMPACTs ability to improve the current status of mass primary education in South East Asia. We await a response to my emails before making an assessment of the policy implications; is it possible that a government body has implemented a functioning, accessible, sustainable low cost system of education for the poor? If so, why isnt IMPACT a cornerstone of the UN plans to achieve universal primary education.

Although my job is not to develop an entire curriculum for an African school, my research proposal has to be based on some form of objective analysis. To this end Hugh Hawes (1979) has provided a well documented assessment of curriculum development in Africa and the reality of teaching within the classroom. Within an historical context, Hawes describes the involvement of foriegn donors, particularly Americans in the development of a post independence curriculum during the 1960’s. The learning priorities were literacy, numeracy, science and social studies each spawning individual programmes to be rolled out in many African nations. The notable exclusion was Tanzania who were developing an Education for Reform programme based on the socialist principles of Julius Nyerere.

Whilst the programme represented an awkward balance of rote and progressive teaching approaches the main criticism was related to the following aspects of implementation. 1) absence of a clear link between curriculum aims and classroom practice. 2) currupt government practices particularly in relation to textbook publication. 3)implementation to broad and too rapid 4) programme was too ambitious with unrealistic timescales leading to fragmented success.

Hawes described the reality in the classroom as follows: 1) not enough time to achieve curriculum objectives. 2) Lessons are multi-linginual in order to save time. 3) The teacher is focused on the priorities (Maths and English) 4) classes are exam focused.

In order to bridge the gap between the formal curriculum and reality, Hawes suggests the following guidelines: 1)given the teacher a set of manageable and achievable objectives and goals 2) be flexible in order that the teacher is permitted to follow themes that engage the students 3)Include Agricultural themes in the curriculum.

In addition to specifying the mechanism for improving the process of curriculum development in the formal sector, Hawes provides a definition of basic education (a concept that I have seen referenced in numerous books) within the African context.

Basic Education is in essence, an attempt to find a compromise between formal (school) and informal (traditional) education. According to Hawes, the principal factors associated with Basic Education are listed as follows: 1) basic skills, knowledge and attitudes (life long learning) that enable learners to take charge of their lives. 2) Different paths to learning; different formats, contents, materials can be used. 3) Focused on attainment of goals (not time spent or ground covered) 4) Very basic; focused on minimal life skills. 4) not considered terminal and therefore not focussed on progression up the educational ladder. 5) Must be developed in the context of an educational partnership that includes the individual, the family, formal education and the surrounding community (should include adult education, art and agriculture). 5) Hawes recommends that context specific themes should be woven into/across the entire curriculum.

In this context, Hawes provides a concise description of a number of Basic Education programmes, sponsored by the UN that went into operation across Africa. This tag appears to represent the next line of enquiry.

The literature review appears to suggest the following pointers in relation to my own project:
1) Literacy and numeracy are legitimate priorities
2) Some form of skills based learning should be included in the curriculum i.e Agriculture, IT, Health care, development studies (Van Rensburg) depending on the contextual need.
3) Teaching methods should be grounded in indigenous tradition of observation and imitation
4) Lessons and materials should be related to context

Furthermore, should the research be successful, any form of expansion in terms of the schooling and the curriculum should involve community stakeholders as an integral part of the development process and consider adult education in order to fully integrate the format into the community.

Newsflash!
It seems were not alone afterall. While reviewing the tome, Principles and Practice in Education (Farrant, 1982), I came across a reference to a programme called IMPACT (Instructional Management by Parents, Communities and Teachers). The programme (implemented in Indonesea and the Phillipines) has been specifically designed to function in poor countries where resources are in short supply. Significantly, the classes (small groups of 5 students) are led by student-tutors as opposed to formal teachers and it would appear that the aims of the programme are very similar to those related to Basic Education described above. The programme was specified by SEAMEO (South East Asian Ministers of Education Organisation) as an effective alternative delivery system for mass primary education and funded by the International Development Research Centre of Canada. I have emailed SEAMEO in the hope that they will provide me with some relevant documentation in order that I may compare the aims, scope, curriculum etc with the cheap basic education requirement for Ghana.

Despite the length of time it has taken to reveal itself, Im not surprised that a detailed and structured contemporary programme of peer group learning currently exists and should it be readily transferrable to Ghana that would represent some very good news for Ken and the children. Where exactly that would leave my proposal however, remains to be seen.

As the literature review progresses, I thought it would be a good idea to use the blog as a record of the interesting little nuggets of information encountered in relation to Ghana and its education system. In order to understand the philosophy that underpins policy and the curriculum, I attempted to access the Ghanaian Ministry of Education (MoE) website but it is currently unavailable. I did however come across a reference to a broad body of work (referred to as MUSTER) undertaken by the University of Sussex and Dr Keith Lewin, a key proponent of free, universal education.

Whilst most of the work on the internet appears to be inaccessible, I did manage to download a paper investigating teacher training in Ghana which was heavily critical of the progress being made, particularly in relation to the shifting sands that represent policy and the total disconnect with the reality of classroom practice.

On a different tac, a paper written by Goodwyll (2007) was found in Education of Diverse Student Populations (ed Goufang, 2007). It would appear that the flaws in the system since independence have long been recognised, given the number of significant acts of reform since independence (seven). The perennial desire to move away from a colonial paradigm that largely reflects the needs of the elite is apparent however, the meaningful and functional policy shift remains elusive. Although much effort and resource has been allocated to teacher training and free universal education (FCUBE programme), the benefits are accumulated by the urban minority; pre-schooled and fluent in English.

Furthermore, the paper reflects the difficulty of enticing talented individuals into teaching. The vocation is no longer greatly valued in Ghanaian society as a consequence of poor pay/conditions and limited promotional opportunities. Teaching appears to be the last resort of those graduates who in the absence of better exam results, have few credible employment options. This issue appears to date back to pre-independence (1953) when in the absence of teacher resource, the government established an Emergency Training Centre for student-teachers based on a 6 month course. In view of my project objectives it is unfortunate that I cant locate any further information regarding this little gem, apart from the fact that the idea was abandoned after 9 years.

Goodwyll also notes the absence of clarity at the level of education policy however, this is apparently not the stumbling block on which the system falls. It would appear that despite the fact that the requisite communication medium in the classroom, including the supporting (poor quality)text books is English, neither the teachers nor the students have an adequate level of language proficiency (Kraft, 2007). According to exam results (yr 2000) only 8.7% of students reached the level of merit (60%+) in national language exams. This would appear to validate the focus on literary skills in my curriculum design though it does presume that English has contextual significance in the social lives of excluded children.

Finally, the literature suggests that the significance of ICT within the realms of contemporary education are now recognised, though the primary curriculum as a whole is far too congested (9 subjects) for the limited teaching time available(one of lowest in Africa). ICT is now seen as a significant element in the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) and a tanglible means of reaching the poor (Mangesi, 2007). However, ICT deployment in schools remains sporadic in relation to location (urban over rural) and management type (public over private.

Whilst limited, the MoE policy directives/objectives located thus far for the relevant age groups, as listed as follows:

Primary School (6 years in duration until the age of 12)

Primary Education being the foundation of the education system has the following objectives:

i) numeracy and literacy i.e. the ability to count, use numbers, read, write and communicate effectively;
ii) laying the foundation for inquiry and creativity;
iii) development of sound moral attitudes and a healthy appreciation of Ghana’s cultural heritage and identity;
iv) development of the ability to adapt constructively to a changing environment;
v) laying the foundation for the development of manipulative and life skills that will prepare the individual pupils to function effectively to their own advantage as well as that of their community;
vi) inculcating good citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in national development.

The objectives outlined above have been incorporated into a revised national curriculum comprising the following subjects for all Primary Schools:

Mathematics
Science
Social Studies
Cultural Studies
Ghanaian Languages
English
Agriculture
Life Skills
Physical Education

Junior Secondary School (3 yrs in duration until the age of 15)

Under the new education reform programme which began in 1987 the Junior Secondary School is to give pupils a broad-based education including pre-disposition to technical and vocation subjects and basic life skills which will enable the pupils to:

i) discover their aptitudes and potentialities so as to induce in them the desire for self-improvement.
ii) Appreciate the use of the hand as well as the mind and make them creative and self-employable.

All Junior Secondary Schools are day schools with mixed sexes.
The following comprise the curriculum of the Junior Secondary School:
1. Mathematics
2. Integrated Science
3. Social Studies
4. Cultural Studies
5. Ghanaian Languages
6. English Language
7. French (optional)
8. Agriculture
9. Life Skills
10. Physical Education
11. Technical Drawing
12. Basic Technical Skills
13. Vocational Skills

Every pupil is expected to study all the subjects except French, which is optional and may be studied only if there is a qualified teacher on the staff. 12 Vocational subjects have been approved for study in Junior Secondary Schools throughout the country. Each school is required to select for study 2 of those subjects for which materials are available locally.