Illustration of Captain Frederick Marryat, from The phantom ship(Butler (Joan) Collection, Butler 823.7 MAR)
Captain Frederick Marryat was born in Westminster, London on 10th July 1792 to a very wealthy family. At a young age he became fascinated by maritime life, and tried many times to run away to sea. After turning just 14, he began his career upon the frigate Impérieuse as a midshipman, and would continue to work at sea until 1830. Marryat proved himself to be an outstanding sailor, and over the course of his naval career he jumped overboard five times to rescue fellow seamen, devised his own system of flag signals which is still in use today and invented a life boat which gained him the Gold Medal of the Royal Humane Society.
However, it was only after resigning from the Navy that he published his first book “The Naval Officer, or Scenes and Adventures in the Life of Frank Mildmay“, which made a great deal of money and launched his literary career. Captain Marryat published twenty five titles in his lifetime, and a further two novels were completed and released posthumously. Captain Marryat’s books utilised his twenty five years’ worth of first-hand experience aboard ships to create some of the first sea novels, which were much admired by literary greats such as Mark Twain, Joseph Conrad and Ernest Hemingway. Marryat’s later books were predominantly children’s books, including “The Children of the New Forest” which was made into a BBC movie in 1998, and there are 16 of these in the Butler (Joan) Collection.
‘”Amine,” cried he at last, “the Phantom Ship!-my father!” The seamen of the Utrecht, more astonished by the marvellous result than by their former danger, threw themselves down upon the deck: some hastened below, some prayed, others were dumb with astonishment and fear. Asmine appeared more calm than any, not excepting Philip: she surveyed the vessel as it slowly forced its way through; she beheld the seamen on board of her coolly leaning over her gunwale, as if deriding the destruction they had occasioned; she looked for Vanderdecken himself, and on the poop of the vessel, with his trumpet under his arm, she beheld the image of her Philip – the same hardy, strong build – the same features – about the same age apparently – there could be no doubt it was the doomed Vanderdecken.’
Title page from Odes of Pindar: with several other pieces in prose and verse, translated from the Greek by Gilbert West, London, 1753 (Bainbrigg Library/Appleby Grammar School Collection, Bai 1753 PIN)
The ancient Greek Olympic Games can be traced back to 776 BC although their exact origins are obfuscated by myth and legend. Dedicated to the Greek gods, they were staged in Olympia, in north-western Greece. Olympia was a place of worship and politics and home to temples, shrines and a great statue of Zeus. The statue was one of the seven wonders of the Ancient World, but it is thought to have been either destroyed or moved and then broken-up, by the Romans.
The Games were usually held every four years, or Olympiad, and all free men who could speak Greek were eligible to compete in the small number of events. Athletes usually competed nude; the Olympics was a festival celebrating the achievements of the human body. An ‘Olympic Truce’ ensured that athletes could travel from their countries to the Games in safety. Victorious athletes were honoured with wreaths of laurel leaves, hymns and feasts and their achievements recorded. The ancient Games continued for twelve centuries, until 394 AD, when they were suppressed for being pagan by Emperor Theodosius I, as part of his campaign to impose Christianity as a state religion.
This title page is taken from Odes of Pindar, written by the Theban poet in the 5th century BC. Pindar was one of the most renowned poets of his time and the Odes are the only pieces of his work that survive intact today. He composed the words and music of over forty odes that were performed in celebration of the winners of different events at the Olympics and other ancient Games. Pindar’s Odes are beautiful but complex, difficult to translate from ancient Greek, and often hard for 21st century readers to understand and appreciate.
Pindar compared the achievements of Olympic victors to those of the great Greek Gods – believing their superhuman sporting deeds to be almost divine. Pindar’s poems do not describe in any detail what actually happened at the Games; his poems are about victory and the acclaim associated with winning. Athletes who had been victorious at the Games often commissioned an ode from a poet, for a considerable sum of money. The clients were rich aristocrats who saw the songs as ways of announcing their victories to the whole Greek world and ensuring their achievements would be long-remembered. Unsurprisingly, rumours of rich families ‘buying’ victories at the Olympics were rife.
In the first Olympick Ode, which was dedicated to Hiero of Syracuse, who in the 73rd Olympiad was victorious in the Race of Single Horses, Pindar writes:
‘Then for happy Hiero weave Garlands of Aeolian Strains; Him these Honours to receive The Olympick Law ordains.
No more worthy of her Lay Can the Muse a Mortal find; Greater in Imperial Sway, Richer in a virtuous Mind; Heav’n O King, with tender care Waits thy Wishes to fulfil. Then e’er long will I prepare, Plac’d on Chronium’s sunny Hill, Thee in sweeter Verse to praise, Following thy victorious Steeds; Is to prosper all thy Ways Still thy Guardian God proceeds.’
For the 2012 London Olympics, Dr. Armand D’Angour, a lecturer in Classics at Oxford University, has been invited to compose an ode by the Lord Mayor of London, Boris Johnson. An expert in the composition of ancient Greek verse, D’Angour also wrote an ode that was read during the closing ceremony of the 2004 Athens Olympics.
This is the third time that the modern Olympic Games have been held in London – the 4th games were held in 1908 and the 14th in 1948. The games had been cancelled in 1944 due to the Second World War. When they were finally held in 1948, they became known as the Austerity Games due to continued rationing and tight post-war budgets, in contrast to this year’s £2billion extravaganza.
Although the modern Games were inspired in part by the ancient Games, they also have their roots in the Wenlock Games, which are held annually in Much Wenlock, Shropshire. Dr William Penny Brookes established the Wenlock Agricultural Reading Society in 1841 to provide an opportunity for local, working class people to acquire knowledge. He then created an Olympian Class in 1850 to encourage people to keep fit by training and competing in sporting competitions at the annual Wenlock Olympian Games. After meeting Pierre de Coubertin, a French educationalist who shared his belief that physical exercise could help prevent illness, he invited him to stay in Wenlock. Inspired by the Wenlock Games, Coubertin went on to set-up the International Olympic Committee in 1894, which organised the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896. They have taken part almost every four years since.
Image of the Bastille, Paris from Bretez, L. Plan de Paris commencâe l’annâee 1734… [Paris?: s.n., 1739] (Rare Books, RB 912.4436 BRE Elephant folio)
On 14th July 1789 the Bastille in Paris was stormed. It was a fourteenth-century fortress that had been used as a state prison from the early Fifteenth Century but would come to symbolise both despotism and the French Republican Movement.
When finance minister, Jacques Necker, was dismissed Parisians became fearful of a conservative coup. Amid widespread violence and calls for a written constitution, royal forces had withdrawn from central Paris. Revolutionaries had armed themselves on 13th July and wanted to loot the Bastille for its significant gunpowder supply. Attention had also been focussed on the Bastille by one of its infamous inmates, the Marquis de Sade, who stoked up political fervour by shouting from his cell. The commander of the Bastille, Bernard-René de Launay, tried to negotiate but an impatient crowd stormed the outer courtyard and firing broke out. By mid-afternoon mutinous royal forces had bolstered the revolutionary crowd, bringing trained infantrymen and cannons. When the drawbridge came down, de Launay was powerless. The crowd surged in and dragged de Launay to his death. The Bastille was quickly portrayed in the pro-revolutionary press as a place of despotism and terror, thus legitimising the revolutionary action that day. (Historians such as Simon Schama assert that the storming of the Bastille was the liberation of its seven inmates from a relatively comfortable imprisonment and that the prison was governed well.)
The storming of the Bastille would be the inspiration for plays and broadsides for months to come. It is widely held to have marked the beginning of the French Revolution and the end of the absolute monarchy or ancien régime (Louis XVI recognised the authority of the National Assembly on 15th July). The Marquis de la Fayette was appointed Commander in Chief of the National Guard and ordered the demolition of the Bastille – a project that was managed by Pierre-François Palloy who sold parts of the building as souvenirs.
The Bastille is shown clearly on this eighteenth-century map as a tall fortress with eight towers, adjacent to the Porte St. Antoine gateway in the eastern part of the city. Michel-Étienne Turgot commissioned a map of Paris from the sculptor, painter and specialist in perspective views, Louis Bretez in 1734. This now famous map took two years to complete and, because Bretez was permitted access to mansions and gardens in the course of his surveying and drawing, is both accurate and detailed. It comprises 20 sectional birds-eye views of Paris and its suburbs that are presented as double facing sheets. As a commodity, it was aimed at the elite: the King; members of the Royal Academy of Sciences; and wealthy foreigners. For researchers today, it is a valuable primary document, providing not only a map of Paris as it was about 55 years before the French Revolution but also drawings of buildings that have not survived.
Page from An account of the rejoicings, illuminations, &c. &c. that have taken place in Newcastle and Gateshead on the following occasions: the peace of Amiens, in 1801, the jubilee of His Majesty George III, 1809, the general peace, in 1814, the abandonment of the bill against Queen Caroline, 1820, coronation of George III, and Queen Charlotte, 1761, coronation of His Majesty George IV, 1821 by J. Sykes, 1821 (Clarke (Edwin) local Collection, Clarke 1502)
To celebrate Queen Elizabeth II’s Diamond Jubilee, we bring you a special Treasure of the Month.
2012 sees the 60th year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II. It is astounding to think that no-one under the age of 60 has ever known any other monarch. It is unlikely that future generations will see a monarch of Britain on the throne for so long; however the Queen is not the first long-reigning monarch. Many of our former Kings and Queens have ruled for many decades, having ascended to the throne at a young age.
Elizabeth I was twenty-five when she became queen in 1558 and ruled for almost 45 years until her death in 1603. Edward III ruled for just over 50 years from the age of thirteen in 1327 to his death in 1377. Henry III ruled England for just over 56 years from 1216 to 1272. James VI of Scotland (who later became James I of England after the union of the English and Scottish crowns upon Queen Elizabeth I’s death in 1603) ruled Scotland for nearly 58 years from 1567 to 1625. However, both Henry and James came to the throne as infants, which rather increased their chances of having a long reign!
George III set a new record for the longest-serving monarch when he died in 1820, having ruled for almost 60 years. However, his son the Prince of Wales (later George IV) ruled as Regent from 1811 after George III’s descent into ‘madness’ reportedly brought on by the death of his youngest daughter and then as King from 1820 to 1830. Finally, the only monarch to have reigned longer than our current queen is Queen Victoria. Aged just 18 upon her ascension to the throne in 1837, she celebrated a Golden and Diamond jubilee before her death aged 81 in 1901, after 63 years and 216 days as queen.
Jubilees have, unsurprisingly, always been celebrated with much pomp and ceremony. Celebrations have taken place all over the country, memorabilia has been mass-produced and purchased by millions, and street parties have been held. George III’s golden jubilee was celebrated in 1809, as he entered his 50th year as King. Below is an extract from an account of the celebrations that took place in Newcastle. It states:
“The day was ushered in with ringing of bells; the flag was hoisted on the castle, on some of the churches, and by the ships in the river”.
The rest of the day was made-up of several acts of charity including meals of beef and plum pudding for the poor, the liberation of prisoners and a collection for the foundation of a public school. There were also church services throughout the day.
Not exactly the barbeque and pop concert from Buckingham Palace that we’ll be enjoying this year, but jubilant all the same!
Queen Victoria’s Golden and Diamond jubilees involved public processions, banquets and thanksgiving services. Below is a memento from her Golden jubilee entitled Our Gracious Queen by Mrs O. F. Walton. It is a collection of images and stories of Queen Victoria’s life from 1887. There were great outpourings of affection for Victoria, who was hugely popular again in the late nineteenth century. Mrs Walton reminds us all to:
‘…thank God that He has spared her to us so long, and let us pray that He may spare her for many years to come…God grant, then, that each of us may be a true loyal subject of our dear Queen, always eager to stand up for her, always willing to obey her…’
Times and traditions may have changed over the years, but in 2012 with the monarchy undergoing a new surge in popularity, this jubilee is sure to bring as much celebration as those of George and Victoria did.
Oh and just in case you are wondering, Queen Elizabeth II will have to rule until 10th September 2015 to beat Queen Victoria’s record and become our longest-reigning monarch!
Front cover from Our Gracious Queen by Mrs. O. F. Walton., 1887 (19th century collection, 942.081 WAL)
“Fairies are all more or less in hiding until dusk” from Barrie, J.M. Peter Pan In Kensington Gardens. With drawings by Arthur Rackham (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1906) (Burnett (Mark) Collection, Burnett 187)
75 years ago, on 19th June 1937, J.M. Barrie died. The Scottish novelist and playwright is best-known as the creator of Peter Pan, a mischievous boy who never ages, that made his debut in The Little White Bird (1902). Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn’t Grow Up (1904) saw the character take centre stage in a play that was later adapted into the novel Peter and Wendy (1911). The success of the stage play persuaded publishers Hodder and Stoughton to republish chapters 13 to 18 of The Little White Bird as Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens (1906), a copy of which is held in the Burnett collection of Children’s Literature.
In Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, Peter (who had begun life part bird, part human) escapes through the window of his London home and flies to Kensington Gardens. His belief that he can fly is shattered when a crow informs him that he is no longer part bird but rather human. Thus stranded, he takes up residence in the gardens. The fairies that already live there are scared of him at first but Peter endears himself to them as their entertainer, playing panpipes at their dances and generally amusing them. It is with the help of Queen Mab and her fairies that he eventually manages to fly home to his mother. His decision to return to Kensington Gardens to bid his farewells proves to be a mistake: in his absence, his mother gives birth to another boy and, having used a second wish to return home, Peter again returns to the gardens, heartbroken and feeling usurped in his mother’s affections. When a girl called Maimie Mannering becomes lost in the gardens, Peter makes a lifelong friend. Although Maimie goes home she never forgets Peter. However, whilst Maimie grows up; Peter spends his time playing and burying the children who become lost at night, giving each a headstone in the gardens.
Arthur Rackham (1867-1939) provided the illustrations for this book and his colour plates added to its popularity. He would go on to illustrate many children’s books, such as Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1907) and The Wind in the Willows (1940) and to become one of the most prolific English illustrators of the Edwardian period. His illustrations are characterised by pen and brush-drawn main features and a soft palette of transparent watercolour washes in blues, reds and greens applied over a yellow tone. His illustrations for Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens are typical Rackham: fairies with realistic human traits depicted in naturalistic settings.
Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens and Peter and Wendy were the last novels Barrie would write as, by the 1890s, he had become captivated by theatre. He turned his back on a successful career as a novelist to embark on a career as a dramatist, with mixed fortune.
Since his death, Barrie’s work has, perhaps inevitably, been open to Freudian criticism: he was infatuated by independent, distant women and divorce proceedings had made his failure to consummate his marriage public and, in Peter Pan particularly, you have a character that is unable to engage with adulthood. Yet his reputation has survived psychological and literary scrutiny since Peter Pan remains firmly fixed in popular culture.
“When he heard Peter’s voice he popped in alarm behind a tulip” from Barrie, J.M. Peter Pan In Kensington Gardens. With drawings by Arthur Rackham (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1906) (Burnett (Mark) Collection, Burnett 187)
This Treasure of the month was provided by Owen Brittan one of this year’s Robinson Bequest Students.
This May marks the 200th anniversary of the accident of the Felling Colliery which claimed the lives of 92 workers when an explosion ripped through the two pits. It was one of the worst ever known disasters in the history of coal fields with a survival rate of only 24 percent of the workforce who were an average age of 22.
Page showing the list of person killed by the Felliery Colliery explosion, from The funeral sermon of the Felling Colliery sufferers : to which are prefixed, a description and plan of that colliery : an account of the late accident there : of the fund raised for the widows and suggestions for founding a collier’s hospital, by Hodgson, John. Newcastle [England] : Walker, 1813. (Clarke (Edwing) Local, Clarke 1833)
The tragedy took place years before any sort of regulation on child labour as evidenced by the large amount of children who died in the explosion. Of the 92 left dead, 11 of them were 10 years of age or younger. The story of the accident comes to us through the publication of Reverend John Hodgson’s funeral sermon on behalf of the fallen miners.
In October of 1810 Messrs. John and William Brandling, Henderson, and Grace each acquired a fourth share of the Felling colliery located in the parish of Jarrow, about a mile and a half east of Gateshead. The colliery consisted of two shafts, the John Pit and William Pit, which were both over 200 yards deep. Two shifts of men were constantly employed, except on Sundays. From its opening in October 1810 to 25 May 1812, the date of the explosion, the mine had had only one accident, which resulted in slight burns to two or three workmen, while excavating over 25 acres of coal.
Page showing the list of person killed by the Felliery Colliery explosion, from The funeral sermon of the Felling Colliery sufferers : to which are prefixed, a description and plan of that colliery : an account of the late accident there : of the fund raised for the widows and suggestions for founding a collier’s hospital, by Hodgson, John. Newcastle [England] : Walker, 1813. (Clarke (Edwing) Local, Clarke 1833)
It was not until July 8, after diverting a current of water into the pits for over a month to make the air breathable, that any further rescue attempts could be made but by then very few people had any hope of finding anyone alive. Over the course of the next 44 days bodies were recovered and identified. Most were too scorched or putrid to be identified by physical features so friends and family had to identify them by belongings found on their person.
Page Page showing the list of person killed by the Felliery Colliery explosion from, The funeral sermon of the Felling Colliery sufferers : to which are prefixed, a description and plan of that colliery : an account of the late accident there : of the fund raised for the widows and suggestions for founding a collier’s hospital, by Hodgson, John. Newcastle [England] : Walker, 1813. (Clarke (Edwing) Local, Clarke 1833)
At 9:00 A.M. on 19 September the last body was recovered and by 11:00 AM the colliery was back to work as normal. The body of the 92nd victim has never been found.
All but four of these victims were buried together in the Heworth Chapel Yard in a single trench with brick partitions between every four coffins. In response to this tragedy several benevolent and prominent Newcastle citizens began taking up subscriptions for the families of the deceased. Additionally, this mining accident prompted safety improvements throughout the coal community. In correspondence to the inadequacy of lamps in a noxious environment new safety lamps were invented. The Society for the Prevention of Accidents in Coal Mines was also created shortly thereafter.
Plan of the workings of Felling Colliery from History of Felling on Tyne a file of ephemera (Clarke General Collection)
Crime Ephemera titled ‘The Mysterious Disappearance and supposed death of Margetts.’ Printed by R. Henderson, Churchway, North Shields, 1838 (Ephemera Collection)
As a means of spreading information quickly and cheaply among working class and increasingly literate populations, printed ephemera was both a forerunner and supplement to early newspapers. The activity of using local printers to convey a message, including advertising goods and services, local events, and public notices peaked in the 19th Century. These were never meant to become historical artefacts, rather to be passed around, stuffed in pockets, pasted to walls and read out loud to communicate an idea at the time then be thrown away or often reused to wrap meat, cakes and soap. Because of this, where they have survived surreptitiously, such material gives us a useful insight into societies at the time and are a useful research resource.
A prevalent use for this type of ephemera was as crime notices; alerting people to misdemeanours and often offering rewards for information. The broadsides featured here, which were essentially posters that would have been displayed in prominent public places, concern the mysterious disappearance of a local surgeon’s apprentice John Margetts.
The broadside titled ‘The Mysterious Disappearance and supposed death of Margetts’ (above) implicates a Mr Gaunt in “gulling the public” over his disappearance. It also suggests that infamous murderers William Burke and William Hare, who from 1827 to 1828 killed 17 people in Edinburgh and sold the corpses to a private anatomy lecturer for dissection, were questioned in connection with his disappearance but denied all knowledge. The anonymous writer does not seem to fully believe this, asking “…who can put faith in such bloody-minded wretches…”.
In broadside titled ‘John Gaunt in the matter of Margetts’ (below), writer Robert Baird is much more resolute in his belief that John Gaunt is behind Margetts’ disappearance and deeply sceptical of a separate broadside “posted up in South Shields” by Gaunt, seeking to exonerate himself.
He alleges Gaunt’s claim that Margetts left to enter the service of the East India Company, based on an entry in their books, is false as it is not the same John Margetts, or may even be a forgery by Gaunt himself.
Particularly damning is the claim that Gaunt offered Baird “£100, a new Suit of Clothes, and his Daughter” to keep quiet!
Crime Ephemera titled ‘John Gaunt in the matter of Margetts’ printed by B. Henderson, North Shields, 1839 (Ephemera Collection)
Further research from contemporary copies of newspapers (available to Newcastle students through the 19th Century British Library Newspapers) sheds a little more light on the mystery.
Amid the claims and counter claims, we learn from these sources that two gentlemen from Newcastle petitioned the Scottish courts for the re-apprehension of William Hare, who turned King’s evidence against his accomplice to be spared execution, because they suspected Margetts of being the unidentified “Englishman murdered by Burke and Hare” (The Glasgow Herald, Feb. 16, 1829).
The reason behind Robert Baird’s suspicions also become clear as Margetts was last seen on the 22nd February 1827 after being sent with some medicine for John Gaunt’s wife. Seemingly dogged by rumours he was involved, John Gaunt successfully won 5 pounds and 20 shillings “compensation for certain slanderous words… reflecting on his character” (The Newcastle Courant, 1st March 1834), at the Newcastle Spring Assizes court after two individuals accused him in the pub, due to his extravagant lifestyle, of getting his living “by other means”; namely the ‘burking’ of Margetts. The term was derived from the aforementioned William Burke, and meant to smother and compress the chest of a victim in order to sell the corpse to medical schools. This was particularly profitable before the Anatomy Act of 1832, as doctors could then only lawfully use the corpses of executed criminals to teach their students. As the demand outstripped the supply, grave robbers or worse made a roaring trade!
Despite John Margetts Snr. placing reward notices for information in the Newcastle Courant on 3rd May 1828 and again as late as 7th December 1839, it seems the true fate of his son remains lost to history. Although it is little solace to poor Margetts, however, these examples of printed ephemera show how crime and punishment was viewed and enforced at street level through a shared morality and sense of justice… or just as a means of spreading malicious gossip!
Can you shed any more light on the Mystery of Margetts?
From the streets of Sunderland to the steps of Whitehall: Origins of the role of chief medical officer
The outbreak of cholera in Sunderland in 1831 brought about the catalyst for the UK Government to begin thinking seriously about the health of the nation.
Collections relative to the Cholera at Gateshead, in the County of Durham, 1831 (Rare Books, RB616.932 BEL)
Public health champions with local connections (including one of the first and most famous alumni of Newcastle University) brought scientific approaches to preventing disease and raising awareness of the hazardous conditions the majority of the population lived in. It was these breakthroughs that led to the first Public Health Act of 1848 and the first Chief Medical Officer to advise the Government on Public Health issues in 1855.
King Cholera enters England via Sunderland
Prior to 1829, “Cholera Morbus” epidemics had been isolated to India and Asia, killing hundreds of thousands, including British soldiers posted abroad.
It is now known to be a bacterial disease caused by contaminated food and water supplies. Because of its major ports and trade centres, as well as poor sanitation and living conditions, it was the North East that first experienced Cholera in this country, which went on to kill an estimated 55,000 nationwide.
Notice entitled ‘Spirit Drinkers Beware!!!’, issued by the Gateshead Board of Health, in response to the outbreak of cholera, warning people that drinking spirits has been linked to the cause of the disease. from Collections relative to the cholera at Gateshead, in the county of Durham, 1831(Rare Books, RB616.932 BEL)
The first victim died on 23 October 1831 in Sunderland and it quickly reached Gateshead and beyond. Because of a lack of local or even central disease control, the causes of cholera were largely misunderstood even with the establishment of Local Boards of Health in badly affected areas and its spread was not properly addressed. The reign of “King Cholera”, became a call to action for the Government and medical profession to work together in order to protect the health of the population.
Through the culmination of the pioneering Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain in 1842 by philanthropist and civil servant Sir Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890) and a fresh outbreak of cholera in 1848, claiming 52,000 lives, poor sanitation in England became the focus of the Government’s efforts to curb disease epidemics. These were sound assumptions; sewerage, water supplies and housing were largely inadequate and “nuisances” such as refuse and animal waste in the streets, made the lives of the general population hazardous and short. The average life expectancy was 40 in the 1850s and as low as 26 in some urban areas.
Chadwick himself was instrumental in the passing of the first Public Health Act in 1848; a major milestone. Its aims were to improve sanitation through the creation of a General Board of Health and provision for Local Boards of Health to oversee reforms. These could be imposed by the General Board if death rates in an area exceeded twenty-three in a thousand. Although these institutions were largely overworked and underfunded and had little remit beyond sanitation, they succeeded in bringing the true plight of the working people of England to the attention of the policy makers.
Chadwick himself was instrumental in the passing of the first Public Health Act in 1848; a major milestone. Its aims were to improve sanitation through the creation of a General Board of Health and provision for Local Boards of Health to oversee reforms. These could be imposed by the General Board if death rates in an area exceeded twenty-three in a thousand. Although these institutions were largely overworked and underfunded and had little remit beyond sanitation, they succeeded in bringing the true plight of the working people of England to the attention of the policy makers.
A first class answer to cholera
The roots of the cholera epidemic can be traced back to the North East, but so can the solution to its cause and prevention.
Portrait of Dr. John Snow (1813-1858), British physician.
When the first School of Medicine and Surgery opened in Newcastle in 1832, which the University as we know it emerged from, one of the eight students was a John Snow (1813-1858), an apprentice to a surgeon in Benton. He attended to the poor during the cholera epidemic, witnessing the disease first hand; an experience that was to define his medical legacy.
On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, by John Snow, 1849 [Medical Collection, Med. Coll. 616.932 CHO(11)]
In 1849, Snow published the groundbreaking work On the Mode and Communication of Cholera theorizing that it was in fact a waterborne infection. He built on this through statistical experiments which proved that an 1854 cholera outbreak in Broad Street, London was caused by contamination of the water pump. Snow’s scientific research techniques into evidence, patterns and prevention identify him as one of the fathers of Epidemiology; the cornerstone of Public Health medicine.
Branching out: evolution of the Chief Medical Officer
The value demonstrated by Sir John Simon in the role has made the post of Chief Medical Officer an enduring one to date, but also one of the most difficult and misunderstood. For over 150 years, those charged with protecting the Nation’s Health have overseen multiple health crises, scientific medical breakthroughs, the birth of the NHS, and a more parental attitude towards the population’s well-being.
Photograph of Sir Liam with former Chief Medical Officers of England – (left to right) Sir Kenneth Calman (14th CMO), Sir Donald Acheson (13th CMO), Sir Henry Yellowlees (12th CMO) and Sir Liam Donaldson (15th CMO). 2004 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/9/8]
Through these challenges, they spoke as the head of the medical profession, chief independent advisors to the Government on all medical matters, but, above all, the Chief Medical Officers had to act in the interests of the public’s health.
Sir Liam Donaldson was born in Middlesbrough in 1949 into a medical family. His father Raymond “Paddy” Donaldson (1920-2005) was himself a Public Health champion and a local Medical Officer for Health in Rotherham and later Teesside. Like the first Chief Medical Officer, Sir Liam initially opted for a career in surgery, gaining a Masters degree from the University of Birmingham in Anatomy.
Photograph of Sir Liam as a pupil at Rotherham Grammar, 1963 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/5/5/1].
After 2 years as a Surgical Registrar and teaching and research posts in the Midlands, gaining his Doctorate in 1982, Sir Liam changed his speciality to Public Health so his work could impact on populations rather than just individuals. He honed his skills and understanding of the discipline as a General Practitioner, but continued to be a force in academic medicine, including becoming Professor of Applied Epidemiology at Newcastle University in 1989.
A Chief Medical Officer in the making
It was in the North East that Sir Liam was able to gain the vital experience in Public Health Management that would ready him for the top job as Chief Medical Officer.
Sir Liam Donaldson from Northern Regional Director of Public Health’s Report for 1992 [Donalson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/1/2/3]
In 1986 he became Regional Medical Officer to the Northern Regional Health Authority, progressing to become Regional General Manager and Director of Public Health. He continued in these roles when the Northern and Yorkshire Regional Health Authorities merged in 1994, becoming responsible for the health needs of some 7 million people.
During this period, he responded to high profile local crises which received national media coverage, such as the Cleveland Child Abuse scandal. Sir Liam formative years also gave him the opportunity to develop the health agendas that would define his career.
Card received by Sir Liam from the Northern and Yorkshire Regional Office on his Appointment as Chief Medical Officer – Cartoon depicts Sir Liam, a lifelong Newcastle United supporter, as a player. Sir Liam’s appointment as Chief Medical Officer coincided with the club’s appointment of Ruud Gullit as manager. Sir Liam is also shown to be carrying John Snow’s Broad Street Pump to signify his Public Health credentials. c. 1998, [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/5/3/9]
A firm believer in the importance of high clinical performance, he is credited with the invention of Clinical Governance as a means of constant improvement in health care standards. He also successfully reduced waiting lists and created strategies for improving the health care and quality of life for local people.
Sir Liam’s initiatives during his 12 years in the North led to him to become the leading candidate to be Chief Medical Officer for England when Sir Kenneth Calman stepped down in 1998.
Letter from Sir George Godber (11th CMO), congratulating Sir Liam on his appointment as Chief Medical Officer and offering some insights into the role. 10 Jul 1998 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/5/3/4]
Letter from Sir Donald Acheson (13th CMO) congratulating Sir Liam on his appointment as Chief Medical Officer and offering some insights into the role. 19 Nov 1998 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/5/3/8]
Without fear or fervour: the 15th Chief Medical Officer for England
Sir Liam’s time at the Department of Health was one of major reactive and proactive reform shaped by his vision of improving the health of the population.
Sir Liam Donaldson in his office, c.1998 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/9/9]
Among his many achievements were the ban on smoking in public places, regulated stem-cell research, improvements to infectious disease control, and new systems to prioritise patient safety in the UK.
Acting as the bridge between Government and medical practitioners, he responded to high profile criticism of his profession through better safeguards. His trailblazing annual reports and significant campaigns meant he was also able to further his own health agendas for action on poor lifestyle choices, high quality health care and patient centred medicine.
The fire fighter: responding to crises
UK legislation regulating the removal, storage, use and disposal of human bodies, organs and tissues based on recommendations by Sir Liam. Gained Royal Assent and became law on 15 November 2004. (London: HMSO, 2004), [Donaldon (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/3/8/35]
When a public inquiry in 1999 revealed that a large number of hospitals, notably Alder Hey Children’s Hospital and Bristol Royal Infirmary, had retained patient’s organs and tissues without family consent, Sir Liam was charged with leading the Government response. He commissioned a census to determine the scale of the problem and made significant recommendations for reform. These led to the Human Tissue Act 2004 to ensure the wishes of the deceased and their relatives came first.
Special Report by Sir Liam in response to the 2001 inquiry into the murders of Dr Harold Shipman. Makes recommendations for greater regulation of the medical profession, which led to amendments being made to the Health and Social Care Act 2008 to achieve this.
Donaldson, L. Good Doctors, Safer Patients: Proposals to Strengthen the System to Assure and Improve the Performance of Doctors and to Protect the Safety of Patients (London: Department of Health, 2006) [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/3/16/20]
A parallel crisis which similarly damaged public confidence in the medical profession was the murders carried out by Dr Harold Shipman. Sir Liam first established, through an audit of Shipman’s clinical practice, that he was likely to have been responsible for between 200 and 300 deaths. His response was to target how doctors were regulated and continually assessed. His recommendations formed the basis for changes to the General Medical Council and complaints procedures.
As early as 2004, Sir Liam had predicted the inevitability of a new strain of influenza becoming pandemic.
His work established the Health Protection Agency to lead responses to such outbreaks and those caused by bioterrorism. His extensive preparations and awareness campaigns proved well founded when in 2009 the H1N1 ‘Swine Flu’ virus became pandemic. Sir Liam put his plans to step down as Chief Medical Officer on hold to coordinate the response and was commended for his key role in lessening the potential impact.
The communicator: on the sate of the nation’s health
Annual Reports had been used to highlight the nation’s health issues since Sir Johns Simon’s first in 1858. Sir Liam aimed to write more accessible reports for a wide audience targeting the most serious problems with clear action points. These 9 influential reports led to considerable media coverage and both policy and legislative change.
Three of Sir Liam’s influential reports subtitled On the State of the Nation’s Health covering prevalent health issues aimed at a wide audience. Repeated themes were calls for action on tobacco control, alcohol abuse, and obesity. Also includes a letter from MP Hilary Benn congratulating Sir Liam on his 2008 Annual Report. Donaldson, L. (London: Department of Health, 2003, 2007, 2009), [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/2/2/2; LD/3/2/6/3; LD/3/2/8/2]
Sir Liam’s repeated call for smoke-free public places and workplaces led to legislation being passed on 1 July 2007 with this outcome for England; a true public health landmark. By 2009, all cigarette products were also required to carry explicit health warnings.
He also continually drew attention to the damaging effects of poor lifestyle choices, such as obesity. He promoted the need for regular physical activity, which led to major policy changes and awareness campaigns on diet and well-being.
Similarly, Sir Liam produced guidance on the consumption of alcohol by children and young people in 2009 based on scientific research in an effort to change the way families view and use alcohol. His call for minimum pricing on alcohol was rejected by the Government in the same year; a move they were heavily criticised for. The fact it remains a policy agenda is testament to the value of Sir Liam’s tireless campaigning for the good of the Nation’s Health.
The Reformer: New Branches
Photograph of Sir Liam in Incident Room, c. 1999 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/9/12]
As Chief Medical Officer, Sir Liam wasted little in time in developing his concept of Clinical Governance; this means of measuring and continually improving on the performance of medical practioners and excellence in health care. His publications paved the way for the establishment of National Clinical Assessment Authority to monitor competency and, through statutory reforms, the NHS was required fot the first time to continuously improve the quality of their services.
The Secretary of State for Health and Darlington MP thanks Sir Liam for his part in devising the plan. 27 Jul 2000 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/3/9/4]
At the heart of this like much of Sir Liam’s work, was the safety of patients where poor standards meant unnecessary risks. He identified the deficiencies in reporting, investigation and learning from mistakes as key to the problem. In 2002, the National Patient Safety Agency was created to collect data and encourage such reporting in order to prevent accidents happening again. Through reforms, the UK became a world leader in patient safety.
Under Sir Lian’s leadership, the scientific community also benefitted when he reviewed and made recommendations for less restrictive stem cell research. After consultation, he concluded that the potential to develop new tissues for a wide range of diseases and disorder through theraputic cloning was warranted. This laid the foundations for amendments to the Human Fertilisation and Emryology Act 1990, making regullated stem cell research legal and the UK to again become a world leader in this field.
International recognition of Sir Liam’s work in the field of patient safety. He donated the prize of $10,000 to establish an essay competition at Oxford University. 23 Oct 2006 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/5/1/5/1]
Advancing health: an enduring legacy
Sir Liam Donaldson from Advancing Health, 14 March 2010 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/3/20/2]
Sir Liam retired from the post of Chief Medical Officer after 13 years in May 2010. He left England a world leader in patient safety, infectious disease control, and stem cell research and empowered the public to be more aware of the health risks they could help prevent. Like many of his predecessors, he acted without fear or political fervour and is recognised as one of the great Chief Medical Officers.
Letter to Sir Liam from Prime Minister Gordon Brown on his Retirement as Chief Medical Officer – The Prime Minister thanks Sir Liam for his various health campaigns and for postponing his retirement to help in the response to the “Swine Flu” epidemic. 17 Dec 2009 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/3/7/20]
Letter to Sir Liam from MP Alan Johnson on his Retirement as Chief Medical Officer – The Home Secretary and former Secretary of State for Health pays tribute to Sir Liam’s work, especially responding to the “Swine Flu” epidemic, and comments on the impor-tance of Chief Medical Officers being politically independent. 11 May 2010 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/5/3/12]
Sir Liam’s Public Health campaigns were not just a national call to action but a global one. The World Health Organization recognised the innovative work done in the UK on patient safety during Sir Liam’s time as Chief Medical Officer. He proposed a World Alliance for Patient Safety in 2003 to adopt global standards and support member states in this field. This was establishment a year later and, as a champion of patient safety, Sir Liam was chair from the inception.
World Alliance for Patient Safety Forward Programme 2005 – Launch document for the World Health Organization’s World Alliance for Patient Safety, which Sir Liam chaired from its inception on 27 October 2004. Aimed to bring together health policy-makers across the globe to reduce adverse events resulting from unsafe health care[Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/4/1/1]
Among the far reaching programmes developed here were collaborative networks for reporting and learning from mistakes in health care and the Global Patient Safety Challenge which generated commitment from governments covering 78% of the world’s population to reduce harm to patients.
Continuing this work, in July 2011 Sir Liam was named the World Health Organization’s Envoy for Patient Safety. His current role is to mobilise political support to address patient safety at international levels and propose strategic actions for collaboration.
The Public Responds: Awards and Recognition
Invitation for Investiture at Buckingham Palace and Photograph of Sir Liam with his Knighthood – Sir Liam’s wife Brenda, Lady Donaldson’s invitation regarding his Knighthood. Photograph shows Sir Liam with his wife Brenda, father “Paddy”, and mother June after receiving his Knighthood. c. Apr 2002 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/5/1/4/9, LD/5/1/5/2)
Sir Liam set up the Public Health Awards in 2009 to acknowledge those who had made a strong impact in the field. Among many other honours, recognition of his own significant impact came when Sir Liam received a Knighthood in 2002 with his wife Brenda and parents “Paddy” and June in attendance.
Sir Liam at his inauguration as Chancellor of Newcastle University, 7 December 2009
It was of great privilege that Sir Liam accepted the invitation to become Chancellor of Newcastle University in 2009; recognition of his local roots and international achievements. He commented:
“Nothing could give me greater pride than taking up the post of Chancellor in such a great city and in a university fit for the challenges of the 21st Century.“
Sir Liam Donaldson, 2009
Photograph of Sir Liam at his Inauguration as Chancellor of Newcastle University – Sir Liam awarded former Newcastle United footballer and one of his own personal heroes Alan Shearer an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law (Hon DCL) at the same ceremony. 07 Dec 2009 [Donaldson (Sir Liam) Archive, LD/5/1/7/1]
In his first act as Chancellor, Sir Liam showed recognition to some of his personal heroes with honorary degrees, including surgeon Lord Ara Darzi, who he worked closely with on National Health Service reforms, and Newcastle United footballing icon Alan Shearer.
Photograph of Sir Liam at his Inauguration as Chancellor of Newcastle University, 7 December 2009
Map of Northumberland from Mercator, G. Historia mundi: or, Mercator’s atlas: containing his Cosmographical description of the fabricke and figure of the world: lately rectified in divers places, as also beautified and enlarged with new mappes and tables by the studious industry of Ivdocvs Hondy; Englished by W. S. (London: Printed by T. Cotes for Michael Sparke and Samuel Cartwright, 1635) (Post-Incunabula Collection: PI 912 MER Quarto)
Gerardus Mercator was born 500 years ago, on 5th March 1512. He was a Flemish cartographer who made it possible to navigate straight paths across the entire ocean.
Although he came to be known for cartography, Mercator’s main income source was initially in the crafting of mathematical instruments and he would later teach mathematics at the academic college in Duisburg.
While working in Leuven, he struck out as an independent mapmaker, producing maps of Palestine (1537), the world (1538) and Flanders (1540). In 1552 he relocated to Duisburg where he opened a cartography workshop and found employment as the city’s surveyor.
Mercator put his atlas together in the early 1570s when the son of his patron, the crown prince of Cleves, was planning a grand tour of Europe. It was based on his cylindrical projection (a major revolution) and compiled from a collection of wall maps that were available in his workshop, as well as some of his own hand-drawn maps. He copied the maps, then cut and pasted them into the bound format that would come to be known as an atlas.
Page from Mercator, G. Historia mundi: or, Mercator’s atlas: containing his Cosmographical description of the fabricke and figure of the world: lately rectified in divers places, as also beautified and enlarged with new mappes and tables by the studious industry of Ivdocvs Hondy; Englished by W. S. (London: Printed by T. Cotes for Michael Sparke and Samuel Cartwright, 1635) (Post-Incunabula Collection, PI 912 MER Quarto)
The Philip Robinson Library copy is an ‘Englished’ version of the edition published by Jodocus Hondius (1563-1612). Mercator’s work had become eclipsed by Ortelius’ Theatrum Orbis Terrarum but Hondius purchased the plates for Mercator’s Atlas in 1604 and, in reprinting it with additional maps, re-established Mercator’s reputation. The Mercator/Hondius series would go on to include a second and a pocket edition. This copy also has an illustrated title page from the second edition, printed in London for Micheall [sic] Sparke in 1637 pasted in at the front.
Front cover of Little Dorit, no.III (Rare Books, RB823.83 DIC)
7th February 2012 marks the 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Dickens, regarded by many as the consummate Victorian author.
He began his career in journalism, writing for the journals The Mirror of Parliament, The True Sun and later, The Morning Chronicle. The contacts he made in the press industry enabled him to publish Sketches by Boz (1836): a collection of short portrayals of London characters and scenes which were illustrated by George Cruikshank and had previously been serialised in popular newspapers and periodicals.
John Macrone first published Sketches as a two-volume set in February 1836 and followed it with a second complete series in one volume in August that same year. It is a work of both non-fiction and fiction.
Title page from Sketches by Boz (1936) (19th Century Collections, 19th C. Coll. 823.83 DIC)
Dickens’ family had been sent to Marshalsea prison when his father fell into debt. Dickens had been sent to work in a blacking factory.
The social ills of the Nineteenth Century such as child labour, the Poor Law and the poor treatment of London’s waif-children are recurrent themes in his novels.
In The Adventures of Oliver Twist, 1837-39 (19th Century Collection, 19th C. Coll. 823.83 DIC) workhouse conditions, the recruitment of children as criminals, the social effects of industrialisation, London slums and the hypocrisies of the middle-class come under particular scrutiny.
Illustration of ‘The Last Chance’ from The Adventures of Oliver Twist(19th Century Collection, 19th C. Coll. 823.83 DIC)
Dickens first visited America in 1842, his impressions of which are described in American Notes. He was already popular in the U.S. and was mobbed on arrival. Here his interest in social reform continued and his itinerary included visits to prisons, factories and hospitals. He was also saw first-hand the effects of slavery and was a vehement campaigner for its abolition. The trip was both a success and a disappointment: he wearied of the attention he attracted, failed to persuade Americanc of the need for an international copyright agreement, and was unimpressed by the level of information put out by the press. The success of the British reading tour and the prospect of large profits motivated him to visit America again in 1867 but by this time his health was failing and he did not travel far.
Image of ‘Emigrant’ from the Illustration London News (19th Century Collection, 19th C. Coll. 030 ILL)
Many nineteenth-century authors established themselves through writing serialised fiction. That is, the issuing of instalments in newspapers, like the Illustrated London News, and popular magazines, like The Strand, or, as ‘part serials’ i.e. discrete monthly parts. Serialisation impacted upon the novel form: the more an author wrote the more handsomely they were paid but there was also a need to engage readers with every instalment and authors like Dickens adapted plots according to reader responses. Serialisation made book-buying affordable for the middle-class because it spread the cost of purchasing a novel over an average of eighteen to twenty months, with each instalment selling at an average of 1 shilling – a little over £2.00 in today’s spending worth. Typically, when the final instalment had been acquired, the parts were stripped of their paper wrappers and advertisements, trimmed and bound in leather or fine cloth. Thus it is rare to find novels as part serials today. The copy of Little Dorrit (see image at the beginning of this post), 1855-57 (Rare Books, RB823.83 DIC) which is held in the Rare Books collection is a good example of a book in parts. The parts are stab stitched, with paper wrappers intact, marked with the price and some of the parts bear the inscription of a former owner and the stamp of Holden bookseller, Church St., Liverpool. It offers an opportunity to experience the text as the contemporary readers would have experienced it, with a greater number of illustrations (by H.K. Browne) and the cliffhangers at the end of each part.
Dickens’ final novel, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, 1870 (Rare Books, RB823.83 DIC) remains unfinished. There are no clues regarding an intended ending in the notes which Dickens left although he sent a summary of the story to his friend John Forster. He died from a stroke, having completed a full day’s work on the novel. The sixth instalment was the last to be published.
Extract from The Mystery of Edwin Drood, 1870 (Rare Books, RB823.83 DIC)
